新型酪氨酸激酶抑制剂HHGV678对Bcr-Abl野生型细胞株和伊马替尼耐药细胞株抑制作用的体外研究

本研究比较新型的酪氨酸激酶抑制剂HHGV678与伊马替尼(imatinib,IM)在体外对Bcr-Abl野生型和IM耐药细胞株的抑制作用,探索HHGV678替代IM治疗CML及IM耐药CML患者的可能性。以Bcr-Abl野生型细胞株(K562和32Dp210)及16种IM耐药细胞株(K562R和15种Bcr-Abl点突变细胞株)为研究对象,用MTT法检测HHGV678和IM对上述细胞的生长抑制作用;以DNA梯形条带法和Annexin-V/PI双染色流式细胞术检测细胞凋亡;应用Western blot检测HHGV678对上述细胞BCR-ABL融合蛋白及酪氨酸激酶磷酸化表达的影响。结果表明:HHGV678呈剂量依赖性显著抑制Bcr-Abl野生型细胞株和除T315I点突变细胞株以外的IM耐药细胞株生长。比较IC50发现,HHGV678在低剂量下(0.01-0.3μmol/L)抑制K562和32Dp210细胞生长的作用比IM分别强15.5和28倍;而对除T315I点突变细胞株以外的15种IM耐药细胞株细胞的生长抑制作用比IM强1.4-124.3倍。HHGV678抑制上述细胞酪氨酸激酶磷酸化的能力均强于IM。更重要的是HHGV678在10.0μmol/L剂量下诱导IM强耐药细胞株K562R和T315I点突变细胞株的凋亡率分别达到40.06%和33.32%,显著高于IM的19.77%和10.68%。结论:新型酪氨酸激酶抑制剂HHGV678对Bcr-Abl野生型细胞株和IM耐药细胞株,尤其是对IM强耐药细胞株的生长抑制作用明显强于IM,但HHGV678能否成为治疗CML和IM耐药CML患者新的靶向药物,仍有待进一步的研究。     

Sonic hedgehog signaling regulates Bcr-Abl expression in human chronic myeloid leukemia cells

Purpose

Bcr-Abl fusion protein activates tyrosine kinase, resulting in the proliferation of leukemia cells, especially chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) cells. Imatinib (IM) effectively targets Bcr-Abl tyrosine kinase, but development of resistance to IM occurs with varying frequency.

Methods

Elucidation of the common regulatory pathway upstream of Bcr-Abl in IM-sensitive and IM-resistant CML cells is important for developing novel therapeutics against CML.

Results

This study demonstrated that IM preferentially inhibited the viability and Bcr-Abl expression in IM-sensitive K562 (K562) cells, but not in Bcr-Abl overexpressing IM-resistant K562 (K562R) cells. Both K562 and K562R cells expressed Shh preproprotein, cleaved Shh C-terminal and N-terminal peptides, as well as mRNA level of major Shh signaling molecules, including sonic hedgehog (Shh), patched (PTCH), smoothened (Smo) and Gli-1. Moreover, Gli-1 translocation into nucleus was evident in these two cell lines, suggesting that both K562 and K562R cells possess activated and major components of the Shh signaling pathway. Silencing of Gli-1 by interference RNA was accompanied by inhibition of Bcr-Abl protein expression. Pharmacological suppression of Bcr-Abl expression was restored by the Smo agonist purmorpharmine. Treatment of Shh peptide in both K562 and K562R cells not only increased Shh and Gli-1 expression, but also up-regulated Bcr-Abl expression. Resveratrol, a known Bcr-Abl inhibitor, reduced Gli-1 activation and inhibited the viability of CML cells.

Conclusions

Shh signaling may regulate Bcr-Abl expression in human chronic myeloid leukemia cells. Novel compounds inhibiting both Shh signaling and Bcr-Abl expression, such as resveratrol, may have potential to be effective agents against CML independent of IM resistance.     

Kinase inhibitors in chronic myelogenous leukemia

The Bcr-Abl tyrosine kinase inhibitor imatinib mesylate launched the era of molecular targeted therapy and constitutes a milestone in oncology history. However, despite impressive cytogenetic response rates achieved with this agent in patients with chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) in chronic phase, those with advanced-stage CML frequently obtain more modest responses that are in many instances of short duration. Several mechanisms of resistance to imatinib have been described among patients that develop clinical resistance to imatinib. Point mutations in the Bcr-Abl kinase domain that impair the ability of imatinib to inhibit the kinase activity represent the leading cause of resistance. Several approaches are being pursued to overcome these mutations. In addition, many other protein kinases implicated in signaling transduction downstream Bcr-Abl play critical roles in the pathogenesis of CML, thus representing potential therapeutic targets. Multiple compounds are being screened to identify inhibitors of these kinases. This article focuses on the current state of development of new kinase inhibitors for the therapy of CML.     

Pyrrolo-1,5-benzoxazepines induce apoptosis in chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) cells by bypassing the apoptotic suppressor bcr-abl

Expression of the transforming oncogene bcr-abl in chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) cells is reported to confer resistance against apoptosis induced by many chemotherapeutic agents such as etoposide, ara-C, and staurosporine. In the present study some members of a series of novel pyrrolo-1,5-benzoxazepines potently induce apoptosis, as shown by cell shrinkage, chromatin condensation, DNA fragmentation, and poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) cleavage, in three CML cell lines, K562, KYO.1, and LAMA 84. Induction of apoptosis by a representative member of this series, PBOX-6, was not accompanied by either the down-regulation of Bcr-Abl or by the attenuation of its protein tyrosine kinase activity up to 24 h after treatment, when approximately 50% of the cells had undergone apoptosis. These results suggest that down-regulation of Bcr-Abl is not part of the upstream apoptotic death program activated by PBOX-6. By characterizing the mechanism in which this novel agent executes apoptosis, this study has revealed that PBOX-6 caused activation of caspase 3-like proteases in only two of the three CML cell lines. In addition, inhibition of caspase 3-like protease activity using the inhibitor z-DEVD-fmk blocked caspase 3-like protease activity but did not prevent the induction of apoptosis, suggesting that caspase 3-like proteases are not essential in the mechanism by which PBOX-6 induces apoptosis in CML cells. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that PBOX-6 can bypass Bcr-Abl-mediated suppression of apoptosis, suggesting an important potential use of these compounds in the treatment of CML.     

Targeting autophagy potentiates tyrosine kinase inhibitor–induced cell death in Philadelphia chromosome–positive cells, including primary CML stem cells

Imatinib mesylate (IM), a potent inhibitor of the BCR/ABL tyrosine kinase, has become standard first-line therapy for patients with chronic myeloid leukemia (CML), but the frequency of resistance increases in advancing stages of disease. Elimination of BCR/ABL-dependent intracellular signals triggers apoptosis, but it is unclear whether this activates additional cell survival and/or death pathways. We have shown here that IM induces autophagy in CML blast crisis cell lines, CML primary cells, and p210^BCR/ABL-expressing myeloid precursor cells. IM-induced autophagy did not involve c-Abl or Bcl-2 activity but was associated with ER stress and was suppressed by depletion of intracellular Ca²⁺, suggesting it is mechanistically nonoverlapping with IM-induced apoptosis. We further demonstrated that suppression of autophagy using either pharmacological inhibitors or RNA interference of essential autophagy genes enhanced cell death induced by IM in cell lines and primary CML cells. Critically, the combination of a tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI), i.e., IM, nilotinib, or dasatinib, with inhibitors of autophagy resulted in near complete elimination of phenotypically and functionally defined CML stem cells. Together, these findings suggest that autophagy inhibitors may enhance the therapeutic effects of TKIs in the treatment of CML.     

Design,synthesis and broad-spectrum Bcr-Abl inhibitory activity of novel thiazolamide–benzamide derivatives

Bcr-Abl plays an important role in the pathogenesis and development of chronic myeloid leukemia (CML). But Bcr-Abl is prone to mutation, so it increases the difficulty of clinical treatment. Therefore, it is crucial to design a new class of broad-spectrum Bcr-Abl inhibitors. Herein, forty novel thiazolamide–benzamide derivatives were synthesized and evaluated their broad-spectrum Bcr-Abl inhibitory activities. The newly synthesized compounds were characterized by using spectrum data (¹H NMR, APCI-MS and IR) and elemental analysis. The protein kinase results indicated that eight compounds (3a, 3e, 3m, 3n, 3p, 4c, 4f, 4g) showed high activities to wild-type and T315I mutation. The most potent compound 3m exhibited an Abl IC₅₀ value as low as 1.273 μM and showed inhibition to the T315I mutant with IC₅₀ value 39.89 μM. 3m could prove to be a new promising lead compound for the further development of broad-spectrum Bcr-Abl inhibitors to overcome clinical acquired resistance.

3m showed good broad-spectrum Bcr-Abl inhibition of wild-type and T315I mutant.     

伊马替尼耐药CML患者ABL基因激酶区突变检测

目的 研究伊马替尼(imatinib,IM)治疗慢性粒细胞白血病(chronic myeloid leukemia,CML)耐药患者ABL酪氨酸激酶区突变情况.方法 用巢式PCR扩增对IM治疗耐药的56例CML患者骨髓样本ABL基因激酶区序列,通过测序和序列同源性检索分析ABL激酶区突变情况.结果 56例患者检出突变1...     

Subcellular localization of Bcr, Abl, and Bcr-Abl proteins in normal and leukemic cells and correlation of expression with myeloid differentiation.

We used specific antisera and immunohistochemical methods to investigate the subcellular localization and expression of Bcr, Abl, and Bcr-Abl proteins in leukemic cell lines and in fresh human leukemic and normal samples at various stages of myeloid differentiation. Earlier studies of the subcellular localization of transfected murine type IV c-Abl protein in fibroblasts have shown that this molecule resides largely in the nucleus, whereas transforming deletion variants are localized exclusively in the cytoplasm. Here, we demonstrate that the murine type IV c-Abl protein is also found in the nucleus when overexpressed in a mouse hematopoietic cell line. However, in both normal and leukemic human hematopoietic cells, c-Abl is discerned predominantly in the cytoplasm, with nuclear staining present, albeit at a lower level. In contrast, normal endogenous Bcr protein, as well as the aberrant p210BCR-ABL and p190BCR-ABL proteins consistently localize to the cytoplasm in both cell lines and fresh cells. The results with p210BCR-ABL were confirmed in a unique Ph1-positive chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) cell line, KBM5, which lacks the normal chromosome 9 and hence the normal c-Abl product. Because the p210BCR-ABL protein appears cytoplasmic in both chronic phase and blast crisis CML cells, as does the p190BCR-ABL in Ph1-positive acute leukemia, a change in subcellular location of Bcr-Abl proteins between cytoplasm and nucleus cannot explain the different spectrum of leukemias associated with p210 and p190, nor the transition from the chronic to the acute leukemia phenotype seen in CML. Further analysis of fresh CML and normal hematopoietic bone marrow cells reveals that p210BCR-ABL, as well as the normal Bcr and Abl proteins, are expressed primarily in the early stages of myeloid maturation, and that levels of expression are reduced significantly as the cells mature to polymorphonuclear leukocytes. Similarly, a decrease in Bcr and Abl levels occurs in HL-60 cells induced by DMSO to undergo granulocytic differentiation. The action of p210BCR-ABL and its normal counterparts may, therefore, take place during the earlier stages of myeloid development.     

NF-κB is required for Smac mimetic-mediated sensitization of glioblastoma cells for γ-irradiation-induced apoptosis

Evasion of apoptosis contributes to radioresistance of glioblastoma, calling for novel strategies to overcome apoptosis resistance. In this study, we investigated the potential of the small molecule Smac mimetic BV6 to modulate radiosensitivity of glioblastoma cells. Here, we identify a novel proapoptotic function of NF-κB in γ-irradiation-induced apoptosis of glioblastoma cells by showing, for the first time, that NF-κB is critically required for Smac mimetic-mediated radiosensitization. BV6 significantly increases γ-irradiation-triggered apoptosis in several glioblastoma cell lines in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Calculation of combination index (CI) reveals that the interaction of BV6 and γ-irradiation is highly synergistic (CI < 0.3). Molecular studies show that BV6 stimulates NF-κB activation, which is critical for radiosensitization, because genetic inhibition of NF-κB by overexpression of the dominant-negative superrepressor IκBα-SR significantly decreases BV6- and γ-irradiation-induced apoptosis. Also, the BV6-mediated enhancement of γ-irradiation-triggered caspase activation, drop of mitochondrial membrane potential, and cytochrome c release is abolished in cells overexpressing IκBα-SR. Similarly, NF-κB inhibition by ectopic expression of a kinase dead mutant of IKKβ prevents the BV6-mediated sensitization for γ-irradiation. The clinical relevance is underscored by experiments with primary tumor samples showing that BV6 sensitizes primary cultured glioma cells as well as glioblastoma-initiating cancer stem cells derived from surgical specimens for γ-irradiation. In conclusion, we identify NF-κB as a critical mediator of Smac mimetic-conferred radiosensitization of glioblastoma cells. These results have important implications for the development of Smac mimetic-based combination protocols for radiosensitization of glioblastoma.     

ERK2, but Not ERK1, Mediates Acquired and “De novo” Resistance to Imatinib Mesylate: Implication for CML Therapy

Resistance to Imatinib Mesylate (IM) is a major problem in Chronic Myelogenous Leukaemia management. Most of the studies about resistance have focused on point mutations on BCR/ABL. However, other types of resistance that do not imply mutations in BCR/ABL have been also described. In the present report we aim to study the role of several MAPK in IM resistance not associate to BCR/ABL mutations. Therefore we used an experimental system of resistant cell lines generated by co-culturing with IM (K562, Lama 84) as well as primary material from resistant and responder patient without BCR/ABL mutations. Here we demonstrate that Erk5 and p38MAPK signaling pathways are not implicated in the acquired resistance phenotype. However, Erk2, but not Erk1, is critical for the acquired resistance to IM. In fact, Bcr/Abl activates preferentially Erk2 in transient transfection in a dose dependent fashion through the c-Abl part of the chimeric protein. Finally, we present evidences demonstrating how constitutive activation of Erk2 is a de novo mechanism of resistance to IM. In summary our data support the use of therapeutic approaches based on Erk2 inhibition, which could be added to the therapeutic armamentarium to fight CML, especially when IM resistance develops secondary to Erk2 activation.     

接合物蛋白磷酸化水平在伊马替尼治疗慢性粒细胞白血病中的临床意义

目的 探讨接合物蛋白(CRKL)的磷酸化水平在伊马替尼治疗慢性粒细胞白血病(CML)中的临床意义.方法 分别采用筑巢式PCR扩增ABL激酶区序列、实时荧光定量PCR法、流式细胞术检测35例CML患者不同时期52份骨髓标本ABL激酶区点突变、BCR-ABL基因转录水平、CRKL磷酸化水平,分析CRKL磷酸化水平与前两者的关系.结果 15例伊马替尼耐药患者中6例(40.0%)检测到ABL激酶区点突变,涉及四种类型氨基酸的改变,分别为Y253H 1例、E255K 1例、T315I 3例、F317L 1例,其中2例(T315I、Y253H)处于急变期,3例(E255K、T315I、F317L)处于加速期,1例(T315I)处于慢性期.初诊组BCR-ABL mRNA水平高于伊马替尼治疗有效组(P=0.01);伊马替尼耐药组BCR-ABL mRNA水平高于伊马替尼治疗有效组(P=0.03);伊马替尼耐药组BCR-ABLmRNA水平与初诊组差异无统计学意义(P=0.18).伊马替尼耐药组与初诊组磷酸化CRKL阳性细胞百分率及平均荧光强度(MFI)均明显升高,两组差异无统计学意义(P=5.130;P=3.178);但初诊组较伊马替尼治疗有效组患者显著增高(P=0.000;P=0.01),伊马替尼耐药组较伊马替尼治疗有效组患者显著增高(P=0.000;P=0.02);磷酸化CRKL阳性细胞百分率、MFI与BCR-ABL mRNA表达水平存在正相关关系(P＜0.05).结论 应用流式细胞术检测P210BCR-ABL主要底物CRKL蛋白的磷酸化水平,是快速便捷的检测CML患者酪氨酸激酶活性的方法,CRKL磷酸化水平可作为评价伊马替尼治疗CML的疗效指标.

Abstract：

Objective To investigate the adaptor protein CRKL phosphorylation level( p-CRKL) and its significance in chronic myeloid leukemia(CML) treated with imatinib. Methods ABL kinase domain was amplified by nested RT-PCR, domain point mutations analysis by direct sequencing, BCR-ABL mRNA level by real time-PCR, and p-CRKL level by flow cytometry in 52 bone marrow samples from 35 CML patients,and the relationship of p-CRKL level with ABL kinase domain mutation and with BCR-ABL mRNA level was analyzed. Results In the 15 imatinib-resistant patients, ABL domain point mutations were detected in 6 with 4 types of nucleotide substitutions: T315I ( n = 3 ), Y253 H ( n = 1 ), E255 K and F317 L. The incidence of mutations in disease chronic phase ( CP), accelerated phase (AP) and blast phase (BP) was 25.00%,40.00% and 30.00%, respectively. The BCR-ABL mRNA level in newly diagnosed CML was higher than that in imatinib-responded patients (P =0.01 );and so did in imatinib-resistant patients than in imatinib-effective patients ( P = 0. 03 ). The level of BCR-ABL mRNA was not significantly different between newly diagnosed CML and imatinib-resistant patients. p-CRKL%, MFI showed a high degree of phosphorylation in newly diagnosed CML and imatinib-resistant patients(P = 5.130; P = 3.178 ). The level of p-CRKL % and MFI in newly diagnosed group was higher than that in imatinib responded group( P = 0.000; P = 0.01 ) and also higher in imatinib-effective group than in imatinib-resistant group (P = 0. 000; P = 0. 02 ). There was apositive correlation between the level of BCR-ABL expression and p-CRKL % ( and the MFI of p-CRKL)( P ＜ 0. 05 ). Conclusion It seems that p-CRKL detection might be helpful in predicting imatinib treatment outcomes.     

Sequential ABL kinase inhibitor therapy selects for compound drug-resistant BCR-ABL mutations with altered oncogenic potency

Molecularly targeted kinase inhibitor cancer therapies are currently administered sequentially rather than simultaneously. We addressed the potential long-term impact of this strategy in patients with chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), which is driven by the fusion oncogene BCR-ABL. Analysis of BCR-ABL genotypes in CML patients who relapsed after sequential treatment with the ABL inhibitors imatinib and dasatinib revealed evolving resistant BCR-ABL kinase domain mutations in all cases. Twelve patients relapsed with the pan-resistant T315I mutation, whereas 6 patients developed novel BCR-ABL mutations predicted to retain sensitivity to imatinib based on in vitro studies. Three of these patients were retreated with imatinib (or the chemically related compound nilotinib) and responded; however, selection for compound mutants (2 or 3 BCR-ABL mutations in the same molecule) can substantially limit the potential effectiveness of retreating patients with inhibitors that have previously failed. Furthermore, drug-resistant mutations, when compounded, can increase oncogenic potency relative to the component mutants in transformation assays. The Aurora kinase inhibitor VX-680, currently under clinical evaluation based on its activity against the T315I mutation, is also effective against the other commonly detected dasatinib-resistant mutation in our analysis, V299L. Our findings demonstrate the potential hazards of sequential kinase inhibitor therapy and suggest a role for a combination of ABL kinase inhibitors, perhaps including VX-680, to prevent the outgrowth of cells harboring drug-resistant BCR-ABL mutations.     

STI-571 (imatinib mesylate) enhances the apoptotic efficacy of pyrrolo-1,5-benzoxazepine-6, a novel microtubule-targeting agent, in both STI-571-sensitive and -resistant Bcr-Abl-positive human chronic myeloid leukemia cells

Interactions between the Bcr-Abl kinase inhibitor STI-571 (imatinib mesylate) and a novel microtubule-targeting agent (MTA), pyrrolo-1,5-benzoxazepine (PBOX)-6, were investigated in STI-571-sensitive and -resistant human chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) cells. Cotreatment of PBOX-6 with STI-571 induced significantly more apoptosis in Bcr-Abl-positive CML cell lines (K562 and LAMA-84) than either drug alone (P < 0.01). Cell cycle analysis of propidium iodide-stained cells showed that STI-571 significantly reduced PBOX-6-induced G2M arrest and polyploid formation with a concomitant increase in apoptosis. Similar results were obtained in K562 CML cells using lead MTAs (paclitaxel and nocodazole) in combination with STI-571. Potentiation of PBOX-6-induced apoptosis by STI-571 was specific to Bcr-Abl-positive leukemia cells with no cytoxic effects observed on normal peripheral blood cells. The combined treatment of STI-571 and PBOX-6 was associated with the down-regulation of Bcr-Abl and repression of proteins involved in Bcr-Abl transformation, namely the antiapoptotic proteins Bcl-x(L) and Mcl-1. Importantly, PBOX-6/STI-571 combinations were also effective in STI-571-resistant cells. Together, these findings highlight the potential clinical benefits in simultaneously targeting the microtubules and the Bcr-Abl oncoprotein in STI-571-sensitive and -resistant CML cells.     

三氧化二砷对T315I突变细胞株KBM5R的诱导凋亡作用

本研究旨在探讨三氧化二砷(ATO)对耐伊马替尼(IM)并有T315I点突变的慢性髓系白血病(CML)细胞株KBM5R的诱导凋亡作用。选择T315I点突变的CML细胞KBM5R和野生型细胞KBM5为研究对象,用MTT法检测KBM5R细胞对IM的耐药性及ATO对KBM5、KBM5R细胞的增殖抑制作用;流式细胞术检测ATO诱导KBM5、KBM5R细胞凋亡;Western blot法检测ATO对KBM5、KBM5R细胞凋亡相关蛋白caspase-3、-8、-9的影响。结果表明,①IM作用于KBM5R细胞的IC50值为12.66±0.565μmol/L,明显高于对KBM5细胞的IC50值(0.303±0.031)μmol/L,两者比较差异具有显著性(p<0.01);②不同浓度ATO作用于KBM5、KBM5R细胞24、48、72、96小时均表现出显著的增殖抑制作用,且具有浓度依赖性和时间依赖性;相同的药物浓度和时间点ATO对KBM5R细胞的增殖抑制作用强于对KBM5细胞;③ATO(2、4、8μmol/L)作用于细胞48小时后KBM5、KBM5R细胞凋亡率均以药物浓度依赖形式增加,且相同药物浓度时KBM5R细胞凋亡率较KBM5细胞高;④4μmol/LATO作用于KBM5、KBM5R细胞24小时后,细胞内cleaved caspase-3、-8、-9蛋白表达明显增加。结论 :KBM5R细胞对IM具有显著的耐药性;ATO对KBM5、KBM5R细胞均具有增殖抑制和诱导凋亡作用,与野生型细胞KBM5比较,ATO对T315I突变的KBM5R细胞的增殖抑制和诱导凋亡作用更强;ATO通过活化凋亡相关蛋白caspase-3、-8、-9诱导细胞KBM5和KBM5R的凋亡。     

The small-molecule Bcl-2 inhibitor HA14-1 interacts synergistically with flavopiridol to induce mitochondrial injury and apoptosis in human myeloma cells through a free radical-dependent and Jun NH2-terminal kinase-dependent mechanism

Interactions between the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor flavopiridol and the small-molecule Bcl-2 antagonist HA14-1 were examined in human multiple myeloma cells. Whereas individual treatment of U266 myeloma cells with 10 micromol/L HA14-1 or 100 nmol/L flavopiridol had little effect, exposure of cells to flavopiridol (6 hours) followed by HA14-1 (18 hours) resulted in a striking increase in mitochondrial dysfunction (cytochrome c and Smac/DIABLO release; loss of mitochondrial membrane potential), activation of the caspase cascade, apoptosis, and diminished clonogenic survival. Similar findings were noted in other myeloma cell lines (e.g., MM.1S, RPMI8226, and NCI-H929) as well as in those resistant to dexamethasone and cytotoxic agents (e.g., MM.1R, 8226/Dox40, and 8226/LR5). Combined exposure to flavopiridol and HA14-1 was associated with down-regulation of Mcl-1 and Bcl-xL, Bid cleavage, and mitochondrial translocation of Bax. Flavopiridol/HA14-1-treated cells also exhibited a pronounced activation of Jun NH2-terminal kinase, a modest activation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase, and down-regulation of cyclin D1. Flavopiridol/HA14-1-induced apoptosis was associated with a marked increase in reactive oxygen species generation; moreover,both events were attenuated by the antioxidant N-acetyl-l-cysteine. Finally, in contrast to dexamethasone, flavopiridol/HA14-1-induced lethality was unaffected by exogenous interleukin-6 or insulin-like growth factor-I. Together, these findings indicate that flavopiridol and the small-molecule Bcl-2 antagonist HA14-1 cooperate to trigger oxidant injury, mitochondrial dysfunction, caspase activation, and apoptosis in human multiple myeloma cells and suggest that this approach may warrant further evaluation as an antimyeloma strategy.     

Proteasome inhibition leads to significant reduction of Bcr-Abl expression and subsequent induction of apoptosis in K562 human chronic myelogenous leukemia cells

The chimeric oncogene bcr-abl is detected in virtually every case of chronic myelogenous leukemia. It has been shown that cells (such as K562) expressing Bcr-Abl/p210, a protein tyrosine kinase, not only undergo cellular transformation but also demonstrate multiple drug resistance. Recent studies also demonstrate that the proteasome is involved in the survival signaling pathway(s). In the current study, we tested the hypothesis that the proteasome might play a role in regulating Bcr-Abl function. We have demonstrated by using a variety of inhibitors that inhibition of the proteasome, but not of the cysteine protease, activity is able to activate the apoptotic cell death program in K562 cells. Proteasome inhibition-induced apoptosis is demonstrated by condensation and fragmentation of nuclei, appearance of an apoptotic population with sub-G1 DNA content, the internucleosomal fragmentation of DNA, and cleavage of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase, and can be blocked by a specific caspase-3-like tetrapeptide inhibitor. Western blot analysis with specific antibodies to c-Abl and Bcr proteins show that treatment of K562 cells with a proteasome inhibitor results in significant reduction of Bcr-Abl protein expression, which occurs several hours before the onset of apoptotic execution. Levels of c-Abl/p145 and Bcr/p160 proteins, however, remain essentially unaltered at that time. Furthermore, reduced Bcr-Abl expression is reflected in significantly attenuated Bcr-Abl-mediated protein tyrosine phosphorylation. Taken together, these results indicate that proteasome inhibition is sufficient to inactivate Bcr-Abl function and subsequently activate the apoptotic death program in cells that are resistant to apoptosis induced by chemotherapy.     

CXCR4 up-regulation by imatinib induces chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) cell migration to bone marrow stroma and promotes survival of quiescent CML cells

Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) is driven by constitutively activated Bcr-Abl tyrosine kinase, which causes the defective adhesion of CML cells to bone marrow stroma. The overexpression of p210Bcr-Abl was reported to down-regulate CXCR4 expression, and this is associated with the cell migration defects in CML. We proposed that tyrosine kinase inhibitors, imatinib or INNO-406, may restore CXCR4 expression and cause the migration of CML cells to bone marrow microenvironment niches, which in turn results in acquisition of stroma-mediated chemoresistance of CML progenitor cells. In KBM5 and K562 cells, imatinib, INNO-406, or IFN-alpha increased CXCR4 expression and migration. This increase in CXCR4 levels on CML progenitor cells was likewise found in samples from CML patients treated with imatinib or IFN-alpha. Imatinib induced G0-G1 cell cycle block in CML cells, which was further enhanced in a mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) coculture system. MSC coculture protected KBM-5 cells from imatinib-induced cell death. These antiapoptotic effects were abrogated by the CXCR4 antagonist AMD3465 or by inhibitor of integrin-linked kinase QLT0267. Altogether, these findings suggest that the up-regulation of CXCR4 by imatinib promotes migration of CML cells to bone marrow stroma, causing the G0-G1 cell cycle arrest and hence ensuring the survival of quiescent CML progenitor cells.     

Growth Arrest of BCR-ABL Positive Cells with a Sequence-Specific Polyamide-Chlorambucil Conjugate

Chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) is characterized by the presence of a constitutively active Abl kinase, which is the product of a chimeric BCR-ABL gene, caused by the genetic translocation known as the Philadelphia chromosome. Imatinib, a selective inhibitor of the Bcr-Abl tyrosine kinase, has significantly improved the clinical outcome of patients with CML. However, subsets of patients lose their response to treatment through the emergence of imatinib-resistant cells, and imatinib treatment is less durable for patients with late stage CML. Although alternative Bcr-Abl tyrosine kinase inhibitors have been developed to overcome drug resistance, a cocktail therapy of different kinase inhibitors and additional chemotherapeutics may be needed for complete remission of CML in some cases. Chlorambucil has been used for treatment of B cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia, non-Hodgkin's and Hodgkin's disease. Here we report that a DNA sequence-specific pyrrole-imidazole polyamide-chlorambucil conjugate, 1R-Chl, causes growth arrest of cells harboring both unmutated BCR-ABL and three imatinib resistant strains. 1R-Chl also displays selective toxicities against activated lymphocytes and a high dose tolerance in a murine model.