A comparative multi‐site and whole‐body assessment of fascia in the horse and dog: a detailed histological investigation

Fascia in the veterinary sciences is drawing attention, such that physiotherapists and animal practitioners are now applying techniques based on the concept of fascia studies in humans. A comprehensive study of fascia is therefore needed in animals to understand the arrangement of the fascial layers in an unguligrade horse and a digitigrade dog. This study has examined the difference between the horse and the dog fascia at specific regions, in terms of histology, and has compared it with the human model. Histological examinations show that in general the fascia tissue of the horse exhibits a tight and dense composition, while in the dog it is looser and has non‐dense structure. Indeed, equine fascia appears to be different from both canine fascia and the human fascia model, whilst canine fascia is very comparable to the human model. Although regional variations were observed, the superficial fascia (fascia superficialis) in the horse was found to be trilaminar in the trunk, yet multilayered in the dog. Moreover, crimping of collagen fibers was more visible in the horse than the dog. Blood vessels and nerves were present in the loose areolar tissue of the superficial and the profound compartment of hypodermis. The deep fascia (fascia profunda) in the horse was thick and tightly attached to the underlying muscle, while in the dog the deep fascia was thin and loosely attached to underlying structures. Superficial and deep fascia fused in the extremities. In conclusion, gross dissection and histology have revealed species variations that are related to the absence or presence of the superficial adipose tissue, the retinacula cutis superficialis, the localization and amount of elastic fibers, as well as the ability to slide and glide between the different layers. Further research is now needed to understand in more detail whether these differences have an influence on the biomechanics, movements and proprioception of these animals.     

The anococcygeal ligaments: Cadaveric study with application to our understanding of incontinence in the elderly

The term “anococcygeal ligament (ACL)” has been used to refer to two distinct structures: a superficial fibrous band originating from the myosepta of the external anal sphincter (EAS) and running upwards to the coccyx (the superficial ACL); and a deep fibrous band originating from the periosteum of the coccyx, merging with the thick presacral fascia and attaching to the superior end of the EAS (the deep ACL). In the present work, elastic fiber histology and muscle immunohistochemistry of sagittal sections obtained from 15 donated elderly male cadavers showed that superficial ACL, corresponding to a superficial fascia or skin ligament, was composed of very tortuous elastic fibers, with a fine elastic fiber mesh at their coccygeal attachment; whereas the deep ACL was composed of almost straight collagen and elastic fibers, intermingled with the coccygeal periosteum. Due to the weak insertion into the coccyx and the wavy course, the superficial ACL is unlikely to provide, even in association with contraction of the longitudinal anal muscle, a stable mechanical support to maintain the configuration of the EAS. Being similar to the suspensory ligament of breast, tissue repair of the skin ligament would not have a mechanical role. In contrast, the deep ACL, in association with the thick presacral fascia, likely plays a role in maintaining a suitable positioning of the anorectum to the coccyx. However, their relative lack of smooth muscles compared with rich elastic fibers indicates that both ACLs may become permanently overextended under conditions of long‐term mechanical stress. Clin. Anat. 28:1039–1047, 2015. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

早期电刀浅筋膜层切痂大张植皮修复手深度烧伤

目的探讨手深度烧伤的修复方法。方法对手深度烧伤伤后7d内，在气囊止血带下实施电刀浅筋膜层切痂，大张自体中厚皮移植术。结果本组32例患者，46只手，实行早期电刀浅筋膜切痂、大张自体中厚皮移植术，植皮成活率96％，手术创面出血量20ml／100cm^2，术后随访6～18个月，手的握、旋、提、拧、搬、捏、执等功能恢复85％以上。患者满意。结论手深度烧伤早期实施电刀筋膜层切痂加植大张自体中厚皮，具有手术出血量少、植皮成活率高、术后外观和功能恢复好、二次整形机率低等优点，是理想的修复手段。     

Skin microautografting. Changes in area and morphology of the new skin

Research and Production Center for Medical Bioengineering, Ministry of Health of the USSR, Moscow. (Presented by Academician of the Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR D. S. Sarkisov.) Translated from Byulleten' Éksperimental'noi Biologii i Meditsiny, Vol. 109, No. 5, pp. 470–473, May, 1990.     

Development of an artificial dermis composed of hyaluronic acid and collagen

This study aimed to investigate the efficacy of an artificial dermis composed of hyaluronic acid (HA) and collagen (Col) with or without epidermal growth factor (EGF), both in in vitro and in vivo. The cross-linked high molecular weight HA spongy sheet was prepared by freeze-drying. The spongy sheet was immersed in a mixed solution of high molecular weight HA, low molecular weight HA, and heat-denatured Col, and then lyophilized to obtain a two-layered spongy sheet. Cross-linking among Col molecules was induced by ultraviolet irradiation to prepare the artificial dermis (Type I). In a similar manner, a two-layered artificial dermis containing EGF (Type II) was prepared using a similar mixed solution containing EGF. The in vitro experiments demonstrated that EGF released from the Type II artificial dermis stimulates fibroblasts to produce increased amounts of vascular endothelial growth factor and hepatocyte growth factor. The therapeutic efficacy of artificial dermis was evaluated in animal tests using Sprague Dawley (SD) rats. The dorsal skin of the SD rat was shaved and then exposed to boiling water for 3?s to induce a deep dermal burn. The necrotic tissue was then excised 3?days later. Each artificial dermis was applied to the skin defect for 7?days and assessed for its ability to generate a wound bed. The in vivo experiments demonstrated that the Type II artificial dermis promotes angiogenesis to a greater extent at an early stage (within 3?days), and also suppresses the inflammatory reaction more successfully compared with the Type I artificial dermis. In further animal tests, an autologous skin graft was performed by excising a piece of skin from the abdominal region and then grafting it onto the wound bed prepared using each artificial dermis for 7?days. Although the Type II artificial dermis had the highest potential to promote angiogenesis, in this animal study, each artificial dermis induced excellent wound bed formation acceptable for autologous skin grafting.     

自体异体皮片混合移植现状与展望

皮片混合移植法的提出对于大面积深度烧伤患者的救治具有划时代的重要意义,使利用有限的自体皮片在较短期内修复大面积深度烧伤创面成为可能,降低了因创面长时间裸露导致超高代谢、感染等并发症的发生,而且有利于改善创面修复质量。皮片混合移植技术主要包括大张异体（种）皮开洞自体小皮片嵌植、砌砖式自体异体皮片混合移植、自体微粒皮片移植覆盖大张异体皮、自体异体表皮细胞混合移植等等。     

股神经阻滞相关筋膜层次解剖：薄层塑化与超声影像对比

目的 揭示股神经阻滞操作区域股神经前方筋膜的层次结构,为临床超声下股神经阻滞定位提供准确的解剖学依据。 方法 选取3具成人盆部标本,制作横断面连续薄层塑化切片观察并分析;临床收集36例股神经阻滞操作超声影像,结合薄层塑化图像进行对比分析。 结果 薄层塑化结果显示,在股神经阻滞操作对应层面,髂筋膜紧密覆盖于股神经与髂腰肌表面,在内侧延续为股鞘后外侧壁,未见髂筋膜形成包绕股神经的筋膜鞘样结构。阔筋膜自缝匠肌表面向内走行至股鞘前方,覆盖髂筋膜、股神经、髂腰肌、股鞘等结构;3例（6侧）标本中,4侧显示阔筋膜在缝匠肌内侧缘未融合而分为两层,2侧显示在缝匠肌前缘融合为单层。超声图像显示股神经前方筋膜均可视,髂筋膜为白色条索状高回声影,位于股神经前方且与股神经紧密相邻;阔筋膜覆盖股神经、髂筋膜、股鞘,与股神经相距较远;36例超声影像中,30例显示阔筋膜为两层,6例显示为1层。 结论 髂筋膜与股神经关系紧密,可作为超声引导的股神经阻滞的定位标志,分层的阔筋膜易被误认为髂筋膜,应根据其移行特点进行准确地辨识。     

Investigation of the association between human fascia lata thickness and its neighboring tissues' morphology and function using B-mode ultrasonography

The fascia lata is a membrane tissue which envelopes all thigh muscles and connects with the subcutaneous adipose tissues through loose connective tissues. It is presumable that the morphology of the fascia lata is strongly affected by the unique properties of underlying thigh muscles and subcutaneous adipose tissues. We aimed to investigate the relationships between characteristics of the fascia lata and adjoining adipose tissues and underlying muscles. Twenty healthy people were recruited (25 ± 3 years, 167.1 ± 8.5 cm, 62.5 ± 13.2 kg). The thickness of the skeletal muscles (rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, biceps femoris, and semitendinosus), and their overlying fascia lata and subcutaneous adipose tissues were measured by B-mode ultrasonography. Isometric knee extension and flexion torque during maximal voluntary contraction were also tested. The fascia lata thickness demonstrated site-dependent differences (vastus lateralis: 0.91 ± 0.20 mm > rectus femoris, biceps femoris, and semitendinosus: 0.56–0.69 mm, p < 0.01). Furthermore, there were large individual variations in the fascia lata thickness even in the same region of the thigh. The fascia lata showed positive simple correlations with height (rectus femoris: r = 0.39 p = 0.01, semitendinosus: r = 0.37 p < 0.05), body mass (rectus femoris: r = 0.59, p < 0.01, vastus lateralis: r = 0.47, p < 0.01, semitendinosus: r = 0.55, p < 0.01), corresponding muscle thickness (rectus femoris: r = 0.39, p < 0.05, semitendinosus: r = 0.74, p < 0.01) and knee extension (rectus femoris: r = 0.52, p < 0.01, vastus lateralis: r = 0.40, p < 0.01) and flexion (semitendinosus: r = 0.41, p < 0.01) torques. After adjusting for the influence of height and/or body mass, the fascia lata thickness showed a partial correlation only with the skeletal muscle thickness at the semitendinosus (r = 0.61, p < 0.01). The present study revealed that the fascia lata has site-specific differences of the thickness, which positively correlates with the underlying muscle thickness and corresponding joint torque. Furthermore, the fascia lata over the semitendinosus is associated with the underlying muscle characteristics independent of the physical constitution. It is assumed that the fascia lata has the plasticity and changes its thickness, which likely corresponds to the morphology of the neighboring tissues and underlying muscle function.     

Regional variation in rat aortic endothelial surface morphology: relationship to regional aortic permeability.

The regional variation of rat aortic lumenal surface topography has been examined by employing techniques of scanning electron microscopy. This study was undertaken in an attempt to gain additional insight into the current controversy regarding endothelial folds and cross bridges and their possible role with respect to regulation of vessel transmural permeability. Within the ascending aorta, aortic arch, and upper third of the thoracic aorta distinct, prominent endothelial folds connected by interlinking cross bridges were easily identifiable. The middle third of the thoracic aorta contained less prominent endothelial folds; photomicrographs from these regions consistently failed to reveal the presence of any interfold cross bridges. In the lower third of the thoracic aorta, endothelial folds were notably lacking. These differences in regional aortic surface topography have been discussed in light of known regional differences in aortic wall permeability and with respect to regional differences in apearance of endothelial silver-staining lines.     

Stratification of the flexor retinaculum and the course and distribution of the ulnar, median, and palmar digital nerves: an anatomical study

A gross anatomic study of 169 hands from 94 human adult cadavers was carried out to define the morphology of the flexor retinaculum and the relationship of the flexor retinaculum to the course of the median and ulnar nerves and branching of the palmar digital nerves. The following results were obtained. Three parts of the flexor retinaculum were arranged like overlapping tiles on a roof, and in all cases, the median nerve passed deep to the flexor retinaculum, whereas the ulnar nerve passed through various parts of the flexor retinaculum in 19% of cases irrespective of its proximal form and branching of the palmar digital nerves.     

Suprahyoid neck fascial configuration,especially in the posterior compartment of the parapharyngeal space: A histological study using late‐stage human fetuses

The fascial configuration in the suprahyoid parapharyngeal space was evaluated using semiserial sagittal sections of 15 late‐stage human fetal heads. The prevertebral fascia covered the longus colli, longus capitis, and rectus capitis lateralis muscles, but was most evident along the longus colli muscle. The carotid sheath and its extension were located around the internal and external carotid arteries and the lower cranial nerves. The superior cervical ganglion was also inside the sheath. Even near full term, the fetal suprahyoid neck was short, with the jugular foramen and hypoglossal canal located at the posterolateral side of the oropharynx. Thus, the glossopharyngeal and accessory nerves ran across the upper part of the carotid sheath. Fasciae of the stylopharyngeus, styloglossus, and stylohyoideus muscles were attached to and joined the anterosuperior aspect of the carotid sheath. All these neurovascular and muscle sheaths are communicated with the visceral fascia covering the pharynx at multiple sites, and, together, they formed a mesentery‐like bundle. This communication bundle was made narrow by the anteriorly protruding longus capitis muscle. The mesentery‐like bundle was covered by the posterior marginal fascia of the prestyloid compartment of the parapharyngeal space. The external carotid artery ran on the lateral and posterior sides of the posterior marginal fascia. Consequently, the typical carotid sheath configuration was modified by muscle sheaths from the styloid process, communicated with the visceral fascia and, anteriorly, constituted the posterior margin of the prestyloid space. Clin. Anat. 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Pectoral and femoral fasciae: common aspects and regional specializations

The aim of this study was to analyse the organization of the deep fascia of the pectoral region and of the thigh. Six unembalmed cadavers (four men, two women, age range 48–93 years old) were studied by dissection and by histological (HE, van Gieson and azan-Mallory) and immunohistochemical (anti S-100) stains; morphometric studies were also performed in order to evaluate the thickness of the deep fascia in the different regions. The pectoral fascia is a thin lamina (mean thickness ± SD: 297 ± 37 μm), adherent to the pectoralis major muscle via numerous intramuscular fibrous septa that detach from its inner surface. Many muscular fibres are inserted into both sides of the septa and into the fascia. The histological study demonstrates that the pectoral fascia is formed by a single layer of undulated collagen fibres, intermixed with many elastic fibres. In the thigh, the deep fascia (fascia lata) is independent from the underlying muscle, separated by the epimysium and a layer of loose connective tissue. The fascia lata presents a mean thickness of 944 μm (±102 μm) and it is formed by bundles of collagen fibres, arranged in two to three layers. In each layer, the fibres are parallel to each other, whereas the orientation of the fibres varies from one layer to the adjacent one. The van Gieson elastic fibres stain highlights the presence of elastic fibres only in the more external layer of the fascia lata. In the thigh the epimysium is easily recognizable under the deep fascia and presents a mean thickness of 48 μm. Both the fascia lata and pectoral fascia result innerved, no specific differences in density or type of innervations is highlighted. The deep fascia of the pectoral region is morphologically and functionally different from that of the thigh: the fascia lata is a relatively autonomous structure with respect to the underlying muscular plane, while the pectoralis fascia acts as an additional insertion for the pectoralis major muscle. Different portions of the pectoralis major muscle are activated according to the glenohumeral joint movements and, consequently, selective portions of the pectoral fascia are stretched, activating specific patterns of proprioceptors. So, the pectoralis muscle has to be considered together with its fascia, and so as a myofascial unit, acting as an integrated control motor system.

混合植皮中自体皮岛免疫抑制效应和间接识别机理的关系初探

本文建立烧伤患者淋巴细胞与异体表皮细胞的混合培养体系（ＭＥＬＣ），并进一步添加自体表皮层细胞，以模拟混合皮肤移植时自体皮岛的局部微环境，探讨相应的免疫学机理。结果发现：１．自体表皮层细胞能有效地抑制ＭＥＬＣ反应；２．抗原加工阻断剂预处理自体表皮细胞之后，后者对自身淋巴细胞的增殖抑制现象消失或明显缓解，提示自体表皮层细胞有抗原递呈功能，参与对同种异体抗原的间接识别；３．单抗封闭实验显示ＤＲ分子不参与自体表皮的抗原递呈作用。据推测ＤＱ等非ＤＲ分子可能参与自体表皮对异体ＨＬＡ抗原的加工递呈。相应的免疫机制，有待进一步探讨。     

Semimembranosus muscle displacement is associated with movement of the superficial fascia: An in vivo ultrasound investigation

The deep fascia enveloping the skeletal muscle has been shown to contribute to the mechanics of the locomotor system. However, less is known about the role of the superficial fascia (SF). This study aimed to describe the potential interaction between the Hamstring muscles and the SF. Local movement of the dorsal thigh's soft tissue was imposed making use of myofascial force transmission effects across the knee joint: In eleven healthy individuals (26.8 ± 4.3 years, six males), an isokinetic dynamometer moved the ankle into maximal passive dorsal extension (knee extended). Due to the morphological continuity between the gastrocnemius and the Hamstrings, stretching the calf led to soft tissue displacements in the dorsal thigh. Ultrasound recordings were made to dynamically visualize (a) the semimembranosus muscle and (b) the superficial fascia. Differences in and associations between horizontal movement amplitudes of the two structures, quantified via cross-correlation analyses, were calculated by means of the Mann–Whitney U test and Kendal's tau test, respectively. Mean horizontal movement was significantly higher in the muscle (5.70 mm) than in the SF (0.72 mm, p < 0.001, r = 0.82). However, a strong correlation between the tissue displacements in both locations was detected (p < 0.001, r = 0.91). A Direct mechanical relationship may exist between the SF and the skeletal muscle. Deep pathologies or altered muscle stiffness could thus have long-term consequences for rather superficial structures and vice versa.     

Protective mechanisms of the common fibular nerve in and around the fibular tunnel: A new concept

The most frequent site at which the common fibular nerve is affected by compression, trauma, traction, masses, and surgery is within and around the fibular tunnel. The aim of this study was to determine whether there were protective mechanisms at this site that guard against compression of the nerve. Twenty‐six lower limbs of 13 preserved adult cadavers (11 males and two females) were used. Proximal to the entrance of the tunnel, three anatomical configurations seemed to afford the required protection for the nerve: reinforcement of the deep fascia; tethering of the common fibular nerve to both the tendon of the biceps femoris and the reinforced fascia; and the particular arrangement of the deep fascia, fibular head, and soleus and gastrocnemius muscles. At the entrance of the tunnel, contraction of the first segment of fibularis longus muscle could afford the required protection. In the tunnel, contraction of the second and third segments of fibularis longus muscle could guard against compression of the nerve. The tough fascia on the surface of fibularis longus muscle and the fascial band within it, which have long been accused of compression of the nerve, may actually be elements of the protective mechanisms. We conclude that there are innate, anatomical protective mechanisms which should be taken into consideration when decompressing the common fibular nerve. To preserve these mechanisms whenever possible, the technique should be planned and varied according to the underlying etiology. Clin. Anat. 22:738–746, 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Fibrillin-1 in incisional hernias: an immunohistochemical study in scar and non-scar regions of human skin and muscle fasciae

Incisional hernias represent one of the most common complications after laparotomy. Specific pre-operative risk factors have not yet been identified. Recent studies indicate that changes in extracellular matrix components such as collagen I and collagen III may be involved in hernia development. In the present study we have evaluated the significance of fibrillin-1 in hernia development as one of the main components of the extracellular matrix. Tissue samples from non-scar skin and muscle fascia of 12 patients with incisional hernias as well as from the respective scar tissues were obtained. Corresponding tissue samples of 10 patients with normal postoperative wound healing served as controls. Distribution of fibrillin-1 was evaluated immunohistochemically. Differences in fibrillin-1 distribution in the non-scar tissues of muscle fascia have been found in patients with incisional hernia, compared to those without hernia. In scar regions of both patient groups, slight differences in the pattern of fibrillin-1 were observed. A tendency to a differential deposition of fibrillin-1 in skin samples, although hardly quantifiable, was observed as well. Our results suggest that fibrillin-1 is a relevant factor contributing to tissue stability. Disturbances in its deposition, even before scar formation, may be an important factor to the development of incisional hernias.