Insulin secretion in the isolated islets of single-, regular-fasted and fed rats

To investigate the alterations in insulin secretion induced by habituation to single daily meal, adult rats were trained on a regular-fasting scheme (2-hr feeding/22-hr fasting) for 4 weeks. Insulin secretion induced by nutrient secretagogues (D-glucose and L-leucine) and the rates of 45Ca2+ outflow and 14C-glucose oxidation were studied in isolated islets obtained from these animals and in fed and 22-hr single-fasted rats. As expected, in the 22-hr fasted group, insulin secretion was drastically decreased although not abolished while 45Ca2+ outflow and 14C-glucose oxidation rates were only partially reduced. However, the regular-fasted rats did not secrete insulin in response to the nutrient secretagogues; calcium entry was not detected although a partial reduction in 14C-glucose oxidation rate was observed. These results suggest that regular fasting induces alterations in pancreatic B-cell glycolytic pathways leading to impairment of calcium efflux and insulin secretion. Such impairment is more pronounced than that induced by a single 22-hr fast.     

Enhanced insulin secretion and glucose tolerance in rats exhibiting low plasma free fatty acid levels and hypertriglyceridaemia due to congenital albumin deficiency

Congenitally analbuminaemic individuals and rats (NARs) exhibit several metabolic abnormalities, including hypertriglyceridaemia and plasma free fatty acid deficiency. Our aim was to study glucose homeostasis and insulin secretion in NARs. Plasma concentrations of lipids, glucose and insulin and secretion of insulin from the pancreatic islets were measured in female NARs and control animals (Sprague-Dawley rats; SDRs). Glucose homeostasis tests were also performed. Plasma glucose levels were similar between NARs and SDRs, irrespective of feeding status. However, fed insulinaemia was ～37% higher (P 0.05) in NARs than in SDRs. The NARs displayed a markedly increased glucose tolerance, i.e. the integrated glycaemic response was one-third that of the control animals. Enhanced glucose tolerance was associated with threefold higher insulinaemia at peak glycaemia after a glucose load than in the control animals. Similar peripheral insulin sensitivity was observed between groups. Isolated pancreatic islets from NARs secreted significantly more insulin than islets from SDRs in response to a wide range of glucose concentrations (2.8-33.3 mm). Despite having similar liver glycogen contents in the fully fed state, NARs had ～40% (P 0.05) lower glycogen contents than SDRs after 6 h fasting. The injection of a gluconeogenic substrate, pyruvate, elicited a faster rise in glycaemia in NARs compared with SDRs. Overall, NARs displayed enhanced glucose tolerance, insulin secretion and gluconeogenic flux. The higher glucose tolerance in NARs compared with SDRs is attributed to enhanced islet responsiveness to secretagogues, while peripheral insulin sensitivity seems not to be involved in this alteration. We propose that the enhanced glucose metabolism is a chronic compensatory adaptation to decreased free fatty acid availability in NARs.     

用高脂肪膳食复制胰岛素抵抗大鼠模型

用富含不饱和脂肪酸的高脂肪饮食（脂肪提供59％的热量）喂养28天后．用正常血糖-高血浆胰岛素钳尖技术检测大鼠的胰岛素敏感性。结果发现经高脂肪饮食喂养大鼠的葡萄糖输注率显著低于普通饮食喂养的对照大鼠,而且高脂肪饮食喂养后,大鼠的胰岛素敏感性指数显著下降,空腹血浆胰岛素则显著升高。该结果表明,用高脂肪饮食喂养发可复制出大鼠的胰岛素抵抗模型,而且该方法简便、易行、成功率高,便于广泛应用。     

Metabolic changes caused by irregular-feeding schedule as compared with meal-feeding

In this study rats eating 50% of the quantity of daily food intake observed for free-fed rats were restricted to regular (MF) and irregular intermeal (IF) intervals. Rats which had free access to food (FF) were also included. The experiments were carried out for 1, 2, 3 and 4 weeks. Body weight, daily food intake, stomach fresh weight, blood glucose and free fatty acids (FFA) levels, liver glycogen content and adrenal ascorbic acid were evaluated. The results showed that adaptative metabolic pattern depends on the discipline of the intermeal intervals. Meal-fed rats with a fixed meal time showed better blood glucose maintenance, slower gastric emptying, increased liver glycogen content and lower FFA mobilization during 22-hr fast than the free-fed group. The same amount of food eating by meal-fed rats given randomly in time (IF) promoted a different adaptative metabolic pattern. The results suggest that the regular intermeal period is an important factor for the establishment of the metabolic changes. Therefore, the meal-feeding schedule has to be considered as a particular modality of food restriction.     

Meal-feeding and physical effort. 1. Metabolic changes induced by exercise training

To evaluate the consequences of the combination of meal-feeding (which causes in the long term several adaptations that lead to saving stored energetic substrates), rats subjected to a 2-hr feeding/22-hr fasting schedule were forced to swim 30 min everyday at a fixed hour during four weeks. The results indicate that meal-fed exercised rats: 1) increase food intake above that found in the nonexercising and the corresponding (nonfood-restricted) controls; 2) did not lose weight (in contrast to the controls); 3) initially had a high glycogen mobilization but at the end of the fourth week started to save hepatic glycogen again, despite the intense energy demanding exercise; 4) maintained a slight hyperglycemia; 5) mobilized less free fatty acids than the nonexercising meal-fed rats, probably due to higher insulinemia; 6) had a lower content of ascorbic acid in the adrenal glands in comparison to the control exercising rats; this suggests that the exercise was less stressful in the latter group.     

大鼠血清网膜素-1水平与胰岛素抵抗的相关性

 目的：建立胰岛素抵抗大鼠模型,探讨血清网膜素-1水平与胰岛素抵抗的相关性。方法：30只SPF级雄性Wistar大鼠随机分为正常对照组（NC,n=15）、高脂饮食组（HF,n=15）,自由摄食、饮水,NC组给予普通饲料,HF组给予高脂饲料诱导胰岛素抵抗模型。10周后2组各取5只行高胰岛素正葡萄糖钳夹实验评估模型,ELISA法检测血清网膜素-1,放射免疫法检测血清基础胰岛素。结果：（1）各组大鼠基础血糖比较无显著差异（P>0.05）。（2）HF组血清基础胰岛素水平较NC组明显升高（P<0.05）,但血清网膜素-1水平较NC组明显降低（P<0.01）。（3）Pearson相关性分析示血清网膜素-1分别与胰岛素(r=-0.654,P<0.01)和游离脂肪酸(r=-0.446,P<0.05)呈负相关。结论：在大鼠胰岛素抵抗阶段,血清网膜素-1水平已经开始降低;基础胰岛素水平随着血清网膜素-1水平的降低而升高,推测血清网膜素-1水平降低可能成为胰岛素抵抗、糖尿病及心血管疾病的早期提示因子。     

Surgical removal of visceral fat decreases plasma free fatty acid and increases insulin sensitivity on liver and peripheral tissue in monosodium glutamate (MSG)-obese rats

In order to evaluate the role of visceral and subcutaneous fat tissue in insulin sensitivity and lipid metabolism, we measured the fasting levels of plasma free fatty acid (FFA) and insulin, glucose disappearance rate (Rd), and hepatic glucose production rate (HGP) after surgical removal of visceral (VF) or subcutaneous (SF) fat tissue in monosodium glutamate-obese (MSG-Ob) rats. Monosodium glutamate obesity was induced in rats by neonatal injection of MSG. Surgery to remove fat was done at 15 weeks of age. The experiments were done four weeks after the surgery. MSG-Ob rats showed increased levels of FFA, insulin, and HGP and decreased Rd compared to normal rats. In the VF group, the FFA level and HGP were decreased to normal values, Rd was partially normalized, but the level of insulin did not change significantly compared to MSG-Ob. In the SF group, FFA and Rd were partially normalized, but HGP was not suppressed significantly compared to MSG-Ob. These results suggest that visceral fat affects the insulin sensitivity of liver and FFA concentration more than subcutaneous fat; however, no significant difference was shown on whole body insulin sensitivity and fasting insulin concentration.     

番石榴叶总三萜对2型糖尿病大鼠的降血糖和血脂作用

目的: 探讨番石榴叶总三萜(TTPGL)对2型糖尿病大鼠血糖及血脂的影响。方法: 采用高糖高脂饮食加腹腔注射小剂量链脲佐菌素(STZ, 35 mg·kg^-1)方法建立2型糖尿病大鼠模型。将造模成功的糖尿病大鼠随机分为5组:糖尿病模型组,TTPGL低、中、高剂量组(60、120、240 mg·kg^-1),罗格列酮阳性对照组(3 mg·kg^-1)。另取12只正常大鼠设为正常对照组。给药组每天灌胃给药1次,连续给药6周;模型组和正常对照组则给予同体积的生理盐水灌胃。给药6周后,采用葡萄糖氧化酶法测定大鼠的空腹血糖(FBG);放射免疫法测定空腹胰岛素(FINS),并计算胰岛素敏感指数(ISI);酶联免疫法测定大鼠的甘油三酯(TG)、总胆固醇(TCH)、游离脂肪酸(FFA)和糖化血红蛋白(GHb);果糖胺法测定糖化血清蛋白(GSP);Western blotting检测脂肪组织过氧化物酶体增殖物激活受体γ(PPARγ)的表达情况。结果: 与正常对照组相比,糖尿病模型组血脂、FBG以及GHb显著升高,FINS及ISI显著下降,脂肪细胞PPARγ蛋白表达水平降低。与模型组相比,TTPGL中、高剂量组大鼠的FBG和GSP显著降低,FINS以及ISI显著升高,脂肪组织PPARγ蛋白的表达水平升高(P<0.01或P<0.05);此外,TTPGL能显著降低糖尿病大鼠血脂水平,TG、TCH和FFA含量均明显降低(P<0.01或P<0.05)。结论: TTPGL能显著降低2型糖尿病大鼠的血糖和血脂水平,明显改善糖尿病动物的糖脂代谢紊乱,升高血清胰岛素水平,提高胰岛素敏感指数;其抗糖尿病作用机制可能与其增加PPARγ蛋白的表达有关。     

大鼠糖尿病模型的建立

目的建立1型和2型大鼠糖尿病模型。方法给Wistar大鼠灌胃脂肪乳10d,记录饮食、饮水、体重变化,用毛细血管法和正糖钳技术判定胰岛素抗性,同时测定血清中空腹血糖、丙二醛（malondialdehydeto,MDA）和游离脂肪酸（freefattyacid,FFA）;大鼠腹腔注射四氧嘧啶。结果通过四氧嘧啶一次腹腔注射建立了Wistar大鼠1型糖尿病的动物模型．通过灌胃脂肪乳建立了伴有胰岛素抵抗的Wistar大鼠2型糖尿病的动物模型。结论成功建立了Wistar大鼠1型和2型糖尿病的动物模型。     

脂质灌注对大鼠血浆抵抗素和ghrelin的影响*

目的：探讨脂质灌注对大鼠血浆抵抗素和ghrelin的影响。 方法： 采用正糖钳夹技术，在钳夹前后分别测定生理盐水对照组和脂质灌注组血浆抵抗素和ghrelin浓度，并用［3H］-葡萄糖作为示踪剂测定外周组织和肝糖的代谢。 结果： 脂质灌注组大鼠血浆游离脂肪酸（FFA）明显增加（P<0.01），葡萄糖输注率（GIR）明显降低（P<0.01）。对照组肝糖产率（HGP）明显被抑制（88%）。脂质输注组胰岛素对HGP的抑制作用明显减弱。在钳夹期间，脂质组与对照组比葡萄糖清除率（GRd）轻度降低。在正糖钳夹术结束时，对照组血浆ghrelin水平与钳夹前相比明显降低(P<0.05)。4 h的脂质灌注也引起了血浆ghrelin浓度的明显下降(P<0.05)，但是在钳夹结束时和对照组比没有明显差异。相关性分析表明空腹血浆ghrelin水平与空腹胰岛素和血糖呈明显负相关（r=-0.52和r=-0.61, P<0.05）。脂质灌注后大鼠血浆抵抗素水平较灌注前和对照组明显升高（P<0.01），空腹血浆抵抗素浓度与空腹FFA（r=0.68, P<0.01）、血糖（r=0.66, P<0.01）呈明显正相关。 结论： 脂质灌注诱导了肝脏和外周的胰岛素抵抗，抵抗素在胰岛素抵抗的形成中可能具有重要作用。高胰岛素血症，而不是游离脂肪酸，降低了大鼠循环ghrelin水平。     

Increased glucagon secretion in protein-fed rats: lack of relationship to plasma amino acids.

This investigation was designed to test the hypothesis that protein feeding stimulated glucagon secretion because amino acids liberated during protein digestion function as glucagon secretagogues. Rats were fed high-protein (HP) or control diets for 9--10 days and blood taken from the aorta or portal vein (PV) at 0800, 1300, 1700, 1900, 2100, and 2300 for determination of amino acids, glucose, insulin, and glucagon. Glucose, insulin, and glucagon of control rats showed little change. In HP rats, PV glucose rose during fasting (0800-1700) and declined during feeding (1700-0800), changes that reflected alterations of glucagon and insulin secretion. PV glucagon in HP rats that was elevated 2--4 times rose during fasting, whereas PV and arterial amino acids declined. HP feeding caused enhanced glucagon release that was associated with increased amino acids in PV and arterial plasma, especially the branched-chain group. Although these findings suggest that protein feeding promotes glucagon release because branched-chain amino acids are elevated, these amino acids are known to have little effect on alpha cell function. Thus, we conclude that protein feeding influences glucagon secretion through some mechanism other than increased blood amino acid levels.     

Bombesin-induced hypothermia and hypophagia are associated with plasma metabolic fuel alterations in the rat.

Microinfusion of bombesin into the preoptic area (POA) has previously been shown to reduce core body temperature and feeding in rats that are food-deprived or made hypoglycemic with insulin. The present study determined the metabolic fuel state of rats under these experimental conditions. In addition, changes in plasma metabolic fuels following the microinfusion of bombesin (50 ng/0.25 microliters) into the POA were evaluated. Rats (n = 8) were tested under conditions of food satiation, food deprivation (20 h), and insulin pretreatment (10 U/kg). Prior to peptide infusion, food-deprived rats exhibited the expected elevation in free fatty acids coupled with a small decline in plasma glucose. Insulin treatment resulted in hypoglycemia which persisted for at least 120 min. Following bombesin infusion, free fatty acids and corticosterone levels were elevated in food-sated rats. Food-deprived rats exhibited elevation in plasma glucose, free fatty acids, and corticosterone following peptide infusion. In insulin-treated rats, bombesin attenuated the hypoglycemia observed in controls and increased corticosterone levels. These findings suggest that bombesin-like peptides localized within the POA may participate in the regulation of metabolic fuels.     

Changes of carbohydrate metabolism caused by food restriction,as detected by insulin administration

Metabolic changes induced in the rat by food restriction were assessed by administration of insulin (0.025 U/kg BW). The animals subjected to a 2 hr feeding/22 hr fasting schedule during one week have a greater capacity to recover from hypoglycemia even after 4 and 8 hr of fasting, whereas those with free access to food have a far lesser capacity to recover. Food restriction also caused a greater resistance to hepatic glycogen depletion during the hypoglycemic phase. It is likely that the metabolic adaptation during food restriction is important for glucose homeostasis and for rapid mobilization of energetic substrate during prolonged fasting.     

Preoperative experience with insulin enhances glucoprivic feeding in rats with lateral hypothalamic lesions

Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats received either one injection per week of regular insulin (IP, 5 Units) or saline for 4 weeks prior to destruction of the LH or sham-operations. During this preoperative period, animals given insulin consumed significantly more food in a 6-hr test period than animals given saline. Following surgery, animals were given 3 weeks to recover from the acute effects of LH lesions and then tested for responsiveness to glucoprivic challenges. Sham-operated animals from both pre-operative injection groups consumed significantly more food during a 6-hour period when injected with either insulin (5 and 7.5 Units) or 2-DG (400 mg/kg) than when given saline injections. Similarly, LH-lesioned rats with preoperative experience with insulin significantly increased food intake when given insulin or 2-DG. In contrast, LH-lesioned rats without preoperative experience with insulin failed to increase feeding in response to the administration of either insulin or 2-DG. Differences in feeding responses following glucoprivation between LH-lesioned rats with and without preoperative exposure to insulin were not a function of differences in the extent of central nervous system damage. The present data indicate that experimental conditions play an important role in determining the presence or absence of regulatory deficits following brain damage.     

Reduced insulin secretion after short-term food deprivation in rats plays a key role in the adaptive interaction of glucose and free fatty acid utilization

The present study was undertaken to investigate the effects of short-term fasting periods up to 24 hr on insulin secretory responses of the B-cell to glucose and the consequences for FFA and glucose availability in the circulation. Conscious male rats provided with permanently implanted heart catheters received glucose infusions at midday, lasting for 20 min, in the nearly ad lib condition (i.e., 6 hr of non feeding during daytime) and after extending the fasting period to 12, 18 and 24 hr. Basal preinfusion insulin levels and insulin responses to glucose decreased gradually during these fasting periods. Basal blood glucose dropped only significantly after 24 hr of fasting whereas basal FFA levels increased gradually from 6 hr of fasting onwards. After prolonged fasting insulin released during glucose infusion became more effective in suppressing plasma FFA levels. While our data suggest that the sensitivity to the antilipolytic action of insulin is increased, the decreased responsiveness of the B-cell after moderate fasting periods may result in a drop of basal insulin levels. This facilitates the switch from glucose to FFA metabolism for most tissues already, when the first meals are missed. The results suggest that this physiological process is important to save the glycogen stores as long as possible as fuel for the central nervous system, and also to support basic energy requiring processes adequately.     

The role of intramuscular lipid in insulin resistance

There is interest in how altered lipid metabolism could contribute to muscle insulin resistance. Many animal and human states of insulin resistance have increased muscle triglyceride content, and there are now plausible mechanistic links between muscle lipid accumulation and insulin resistance, which go beyond the classic glucose-fatty acid cycle. We postulate that muscle cytosolic accumulation of the metabolically active long-chain fatty acyl CoAs (LCACoA) is involved, leading to insulin resistance and impaired insulin signalling or impaired enzyme activity (e.g. glycogen synthase or hexokinase) either directly or via chronic translocation/activation of mediators such as a protein kinase C (particularly PKC theta and epsilon ). Ceramides and diacylglycerols (DAGs) have also been implicated in forms of lipid-induced muscle insulin resistance. Dietary lipid-induced muscle insulin resistance in rodents is relatively easily reversed by manipulations that lessen cytosolic lipid accumulation (e.g. diet change, exercise or fasting). PPAR agonists (both gamma and alpha) also lower muscle LCACoA and enhance insulin sensitivity. Activation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) by AICAR leads to muscle enhancement (especially glycolytic muscle) of insulin sensitivity, but involvement of altered lipid metabolism is less clear cut. In rodents there are similarities in the pattern of muscle lipid accumulation/PKC translocation/altered insulin signalling/insulin resistance inducible by 3-5-h acute free fatty acid elevation, 1-4 days intravenous glucose infusion or several weeks of high-fat feeding. Recent studies extend findings and show relevance to humans. Muscle cytosolic lipids may accumulate either by increased fatty acid flux into muscle, or by reduced fatty acid oxidation. In some circumstances muscle insulin resistance may be an adaptation to optimize use of fatty acids when they are the predominant available energy fuel. The interactions described here are fundamental to optimizing therapy of insulin resistance based on alterations in muscle lipid metabolism.     

Bilateral lesions of the SCN abolish lipolytic and hyperphagic responses to 2DG

The effects of intracranial injection of 2-deoxy-D-glucose (2DG) on the plasma free fatty acid (FFA) concentration and food intake in the light (11:00 hr) and dark (23:00 hr) period were examined in male Wistar rats under a 12-hr light (08:00–20:00) and 12-hr dark (20:00–08:00) cycle. In sham-operated rats 2DG injection induced increase in plasma FFA concentration and in food intake in the light period, but not in the dark period. Bilateral lesions of the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) resulted in complete loss of the lipolytic and feeding responses to 2DG in the light period. From these findings it is concluded that the lipolytic and feeding responses to 2DG are photoperiodic and that the SCN is involved in these phenomena.     

Prolonged preoperative fasting induces postoperative insulin resistance by ER-stress mediated Glut4 down-regulation in skeletal muscles

Preoperative fasting aims to prevent pulmonary aspiration and improve bowel preparation, but it may induce profound systemic catabolic responses that lead to protein breakdown and insulin-resistant hyperglycemia after operation. However, the molecular mechanisms of catabolic reaction induced by prolonged preoperative fasting and surgical stress are undetermined. In this study, anesthetized rats were randomly assigned to receive a sham operation or laparotomy cecectomy. Fasting groups were restricted from food and water for 12 h before operation, while the feeding group had free access to food throughout the study period. Twenty-four hours after operation, the animals were sacrificed to collect blood samples and soleus muscles for analysis. Postoperative blood glucose level was significantly increased in the fasting group with elevated serum insulin and C-peptide. Continuous feeding reduced serum myoglobin and lactate dehydrogenase concentrations. Preoperative fasting activated inositol-requiring transmembrane kinase/endoribonuclease (IRE)-1α and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) mediated endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-stress, and reduced glucose transporter type 4 (Glut4) expression in the soleus muscle. Phospholamban phosphorylation was reduced and intracellular calcium levels were increased in the isolated skeletal muscle cells. Similar results were found in ER stress-induced C1C12 myoblasts. The expression of Glut4 was suppressed in the stressed C1C12, but was potentiated following inhibition of ER stress and chelation of intracellular free calcium. This study provides evidence demonstrating that prolonged preoperative fasting induces ER stress and generates insulin resistance in the skeletal muscle through suppression of Glut4 and inactivation of Ca²⁺-ATPase, leading to intracellular calcium homeostasis disruption and peripheral insulin resistance.     

The age-related changes in lipogenic enzymes: the role of dietary factors and thyroid hormone responsiveness.

To determine whether resistance to insulin or to thyroid hormones rather than an inherent defect in enzyme activity expression account for the age-related changes in lipogenic enzymes, the activities of malic enzymes (ME), fatty acid synthase (FAS), glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G-6PD) and 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (6-PGD) were assayed in hepatic, retroperitoneal fat and epididymal fat cytosol of male Fischer 344 rats at 3.5, 12 and 25 months of age. The rats were maintained on either regular rat chow with 62% of calories as complex carbohydrates or were given either high glucose or fructose diet with 65.7% of calories provided by glucose or fructose respectively. Additional groups of young and aged rats were treated with L-triiodothyronine (T3) (15 microg/100 g body weight) for 10 days. Treatment with T3 resulted in higher levels of hepatic ME activity regardless of the diet consumed or the age of the rats. T3 had no consistent effect on FAS, G-6PD or 6-PGD activities. ME response to T3 in young rats was significantly greater than that found in aged rats regardless of diet. The age-related decrease in basal hepatic ME activity was not apparent in rats maintained on the high glucose or the high fructose diets, yet the T3 responsiveness of ME in rats maintained on these diets was not normalized. In adipose tissue, with the exception of the age-related changes in basal activity of the lipogenic enzymes, neither T3 nor the feeding of the test diets had any consistent effects. Since insulin resistance induced by high fructose feeding did not reduce hepatic lipogenic enzymes, it is unlikely that the age-related increase in insulin resistance explains the reduced lipogenic enzyme activity in aged rats. However, resistance to thyroid hormone action found in aged rats may partly account for the reduced hepatic lipogenic enzyme activity.