Risk of needle stick injuries in health care workers - a report

Health care workers (HCW) are at a risk of occupational acquisition of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infection, primarily due to accidental exposure to infected blood and body fluids. In our general public hospital, over a period of one year (June 2000 - 2001) a total number of 38 self reported incidences of needlestick injuries and other exposures to patient's blood and body fluids were reported by HCWs. A greater incidence of occupational exposure was seen in surgery residents as compared to medicine residents. Till date, i.e. in one and a half-year follow up period, no seroconversion was seen in any of the reported accidental injury cases. This data emphasizes, that needle stick injuries present the single greatest risk to medical personnel and the importance of increased awareness and training in universal safety precautions (USP), for prevention of nosocomial infection.     

Surveillance of health care workers exposed to blood from patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus

Since 1983, we have conducted national surveillance of health care workers exposed to blood or body fluids from persons infected with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), to assess the risk of HIV transmission by such exposures. As of July 31, 1988, 1201 health care workers with blood exposures had been examined, including 751 nurses (63 percent), 164 physicians and medical students (14 percent), 134 laboratory workers (11 percent), and 90 phlebotomists (7 percent). The exposures resulted from needle-stick injuries (80 percent), cuts with sharp objects (8 percent), open-wound contamination (7 percent), and mucous-membrane exposure (5 percent). We concluded that 37 percent of the exposures might have been prevented. Of 963 health care workers whose serum has been tested for HIV antibody at least 180 days after exposure, 4 were positive, yielding a seroprevalence rate of 0.42 percent (upper limit of 95 percent confidence interval, 0.95 percent). Three subjects experienced an acute retroviral syndrome associated with documented seroconversion; serum collected within 30 days of exposure was not available from the fourth person. Two exposures that resulted in seroconversion were caused by coworkers during resuscitation procedures. We conclude that the risk of HIV infection after exposure to the blood of a patient infected with HIV is low, but at least six months of follow-up is recommended. Many exposures can be prevented by careful adherence to existing infection-control precautions, even during emergencies.     

Risk and management of blood-borne infections in health care workers

Exposure to blood-borne pathogens poses a serious risk to health care workers (HCWs). We review the risk and management of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), and hepatitis C virus (HCV) infections in HCWs and also discuss current methods for preventing exposures and recommendations for postexposure prophylaxis. In the health care setting, blood-borne pathogen transmission occurs predominantly by percutaneous or mucosal exposure of workers to the blood or body fluids of infected patients. Prospective studies of HCWs have estimated that the average risk for HIV transmission after a percutaneous exposure is approximately 0.3%, the risk of HBV transmission is 6 to 30%, and the risk of HCV transmission is approximately 1.8%. To minimize the risk of blood-borne pathogen transmission from HCWs to patients, all HCWs should adhere to standard precautions, including the appropriate use of hand washing, protective barriers, and care in the use and disposal of needles and other sharp instruments. Employers should have in place a system that includes written protocols for prompt reporting, evaluation, counseling, treatment, and follow-up of occupational exposures that may place a worker at risk of blood-borne pathogen infection. A sustained commitment to the occupational health of all HCWs will ensure maximum protection for HCWs and patients and the availability of optimal medical care for all who need it.     

Knowledge,attitude and practices of health personnel with regard to HIV/AIDS in Tamatave (Madagascar)

BACKGROUND: Health care workers are key players in the prevention and management of HIV-infection. We surveyed HIV/AIDS-related knowledge, attitudes and practices of health care workers in Tamatave (Madagascar), to assess the feasibility of voluntary counselling and testing for HIV infection in antenatal care. MATERIALS AND METHOD: A Knowledge Attitude and Practice study was conducted during July 2000 in the antenatal health care centres and the hospital of Tamatave. The health workers completed a self-administrated questionnaire on HIV transmission, attitudes and practices regarding AIDS testing and counselling, HIV risk perception and attitudes regarding patients with HIV disease. RESULTS: A 90% response rate was obtained, with completed questionnaires from 45 health care workers. The sample included physicians, midwives, nurses, medical students and nursing auxiliaries. Scientific knowledge about transmissibility of HIV infection was poor: transmission was believed possible by living together without having sex (7%), by breastfeeding a HIV-positive child (9%), by using toilets after a HIV-positive patient (13%) and by blood donation (76%). 73% of the health staff believed a child born of an HIV-positive woman would systematically be infected and interventions to reduce this risk were unknown. Sixty one per cent of the health-workers reported never having advised patients to be tested and less then 10% mentioned correct counselling precautions. Seventy nine percent believed that they were at risk of acquiring AIDS, mainly through occupational exposure. Negative attitudes towards HIV-positive patients were also noted: twenty per cent of the health workers mentioned that AIDS patients should be isolated in quarantine. Physicians and paramedical staff differed only in their better knowledge about transmissibility of HIV. Physicians had the same restrictive attitude towards patients with HIV as paramedical health workers and did not differ by their counselling practice. CONCLUSIONS: Our study revealed gaps in the knowledge of health care workers about HIV infection. Before implementing voluntary counselling and testing in antenatal care, additional HIV/AIDS training for health staff seems necessary.     

A review of selected blood-borne pathogen position statements and federal regulations

One response to the AIDS epidemic has been the formation of blood-borne pathogen policy statements by medical associations, athletic governing bodies, and the federal government. The policy statements by medical associations and athletic governing bodies discuss a wide range of issues, including the eligibility of infected athletes and the right of infected health care workers to practice. In contrast, federal regulations are limited to employees in the work environment. Despite the apparent comprehensiveness of these documents, major deficiencies in the documents do exist. For example, employees exposed to body fluids are entitled to free, employer-provided HIV testing. Similarly, athletes exposed to body fluids also are entitled to voluntary HIV testing. However, it is unclear who should pay for this testing. Furthermore, AIDS testing of student athletic trainers is never discussed. Although there are deficiencies, these documents provide guidelines for resolving the deficiencies. For example, because student athletic trainers act as employees of their institution, it is reasonable to suggest that they receive the same protections that federal regulations provide to employees. Thus, the athletic trainer should find these documents useful for developing policies related to blood-borne pathogens.     

Occupational risk of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome among health care workers

In August 1983, we initiated nationwide prospective surveillance of health care workers with documented parenteral or mucous-membrane exposures to blood or other body fluids of patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) or AIDS-related illnesses. The purpose of the surveillance project is to quantitate prospectively the risk to health care workers of acquiring the AIDS virus, human T-cell lymphotropic virus Type III/lymphadenopathy-associated virus (HTLV-III/LAV), as a result of occupational exposures. By December 31, 1985, 938 health care workers were being followed in the surveillance project. The mean length of follow-up was 15 months (range, 0 to 56) and 531 health care workers (57 percent) had been followed for more than one year. Needlestick injuries and cuts with sharp instruments accounted for 76 percent of the exposures. Over 85 percent of all exposures were to blood or serum. None of the health care workers have acquired signs or symptoms of AIDS. Analyses of T-lymphocyte subsets were performed for 341 (36 percent) of the exposed health care workers, and tests for antibody to HTLV-III/LAV were performed for 451 (48 percent). Seven health care workers who had low helper/suppressor T-lymphocyte ratios on initial testing were retested; only three had persistently low ratios. Only two health care workers tested were seropositive for antibody to HTLV-III/LAV. The results of this surveillance project, thus far, suggest that the risk to health care workers of occupational transmission of HTLV-III/LAV is low (the upper bound of the 95 percent confidence interval for the seroprevalence rate among workers with greater than or equal to 3 months of follow-up with HTLV-III/LAV antibody testing is 1.65 percent) and appears to be related to parenteral exposure to blood.     

Intrahost genetic variability of human herpes virus‐8

Studies were conducted to determine whether HHV‐8 hyperactivity could be the consequence of the propensity of the host to multiple HHV‐8 infection. The aim of the present work was to investigate HHV‐8 intrahost genetic variability. HHV‐8 subgenomic DNA was amplified by PCR from patients infected with HIV, health care workers (HCW) and bone marrow transplant recipients (BMT), and from oral lesional tissues of AIDS‐Kaposi's sarcoma (KS) patients. As controls, blood from HIV‐negative health care workers, and the cell lines BC‐1, BC‐2, and BCP‐1 were used. Clones derived from amplicons originating from DNA fragments in open reading frame (ORF) 26 and ORF K1 were isolated. For each ORF, intra‐specimen nucleotide sequence differences were determined. The extent of HHV‐8 variation in clones derived from blood of patients infected with HIV was significantly higher than in blood from health care workers or post‐bone marrow transplantation patients or in AIDS‐KS tissue. Among the clones derived from the latter three categories of specimens, sequence variations were not significant. It is concluded that HIV‐infected individuals can have multiple of HHV‐8, but AIDS‐KS lesions are associated with infection by a single HHV‐8 variant or a small group of related variants. J. Med. Virol. 85:636–645, 2013. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Incidence of visits for health care worker blood or body fluid exposures and HIV postexposure prophylaxis provision at Rhode Island emergency departments

OBJECTIVES: To compare the incidence and types of emergency department (ED) visits for blood or body fluid exposures sustained by health care workers (HCWs) in Rhode Island and to identify factors predictive of HIV postexposure prophylaxis (PEP) utilization for these exposures. METHODS: A retrospective study of ED visits for blood or body fluid exposures to all Rhode Island EDs from January 1995 to June 2001 was conducted. Average incidence rates (IRs) of visits by HCW occupation and type of exposure were estimated and compared. Logistic regression models were created to determine which HCWs were more likely to be offered and to accept HIV PEP. RESULTS: Of 1551 HCW ED visits for occupational exposures, 72.5% sustained a percutaneous injury and only 2.5% were exposed to a source known to be HIV-infected. Hospital custodians had the highest IR of ED visits for percutaneous injuries (81 ED visits per year per 10,000 workers). Visits for all exposures increased over the study years and were most common during March, on weekends, and at 5:00 PM. Of all HCWs, 91.2% presented within 24 hours of their exposure and 98.2% presented within 72 hours. HIV PEP was offered to 469 HCWs and accepted 229 times. HCWs more likely to be offered HIV PEP were exposed to a known HIV-infected source (odds ratio [OR] = 6.38), sustained a significant exposure (OR = 4.98), presented to an academic hospital ED (OR = 2.60), were a member of the medical staff (OR = 2.02), and were exposed during the latter years of the study (OR = 1.23). HCWs were more likely to accept HIV PEP when it was offered if they were male (OR = 1.64) and presented to an academic hospital ED (OR = 2.72). CONCLUSIONS: The IRs of ED visits for exposures varied by occupation, and there were clear temporal trends for these visits. Despite the existence of federal guidelines for HIV PEP for occupational blood or body fluid exposures, factors other than characteristics of the exposure, such as type of hospital, occupation, and gender, may be influencing HIV PEP utilization.     

Nosocomial HIV infection: epidemiology and prevention--a global perspective

Because, globally, HIV is transmitted mainly by sexual practices and intravenous drug use and because of a long asymptomatic period, healthcare-associated HIV transmission receives little attention even though an estimated 5.4% of global HIV infections result from contaminated injections alone. It is an important personal issue for healthcare workers, especially those who work with unsafe equipment or have insufficient training. They may acquire HIV occupationally or find themselves before courts, facing severe penalties for causing HIV infections. Prevention of blood-borne nosocomial infections such as HIV differs from traditional infection control measures such as hand washing and isolation and requires a multidisciplinary approach. Since there has not been a review of healthcare-associated HIV contrasting circumstances in poor and rich regions of the world, the aim of this article is to review and compare the epidemiology of HIV in healthcare facilities in such settings, followed by a consideration of general approaches to prevention, specific countermeasures, and a synthesis of approaches used in infection control, injury prevention, and occupational safety. These actions concentrated on identifying research on specific modes of healthcare-associated HIV transmission and on methods of prevention. Searches included studies in English and Russian cited in PubMed and citations in Google Scholar in any language. MeSH keywords such as nosocomial, hospital-acquired, iatrogenic, healthcare associated, occupationally acquired infection and HIV were used together with mode of transmission, such as "HIV and hemodialysis". References of relevant articles were also reviewed. The evidence indicates that while occasional incidents of healthcare-related HIV infection in high-income countries continue to be reported, the situation in many low-income countries is alarming, with transmission ranging from frequent to endemic. Viral transmission in health facilities occurs by unexpected and unusual as well as more frequent modes. HIV can be transmitted to patients and to donors of blood products by specific vehicles and vectors during blood transfusion, plasma donation, and artificial insemination, by improperly sterilized sharps, by medical equipment during activities such as dialysis and organ transplantation, and by healthcare workers infected by occupational exposure to hazards such as blood-contaminated sharps. Personal, equipment, and environmental factors predispose to acquisition of nosocomial HIV and all are pertinent for prevention. For infection and injury control, poverty is often an underlying determinant. While sophisticated new tests offer improved HIV detection, increasingly higher marginal costs limit their feasibility in many settings. Modest investment in safer equipment and appropriate integrated training in infection control, injury prevention, and occupational safety should provide greater benefit.     

Seropositive sex workers and HIV / AIDS prevention: a need for realistic policy development

In a major change of official responses to prostitution many programs strive to reduce the incidence of infection by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and by sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) among sex workers and clients by encouraging safer sex, albeit still trying to ensure that only HIV-negative people engage in sex work. Legal sanctions have been used to limit the activities of seropositive sex workers under the assumption that sex workers with HIV will transmit the virus because of a high prevalence of unprotected sex practices in some places. Where safer sex is the norm for commercial sex transactions, the concern is that sex workers may neglect safe practices and customers may become infected. The fact is that often the clients demand unprotected sex, even when sex workers prefer to use condoms. The risk of accidental infection when protected sex is practiced may even be lower in commercial transactions in which at least one partner is very experienced in condom use and other safe practices. It is usually assumed that HIV-positive sex workers will not inform clients of their status, however, and clients will not inform sex workers of their serostatus either. Where sex workers practice safe sex, intervention programs should provide education on condom use and ensure the availability of inexpensive condoms. In addition to gynecological, antenatal and STD services, health and social services, including child care and legal support, have to be easily accessible. Religious and cultural impediments to realistic HIV/STD prevention should be studied in order to modify or eliminate them. Sex workers who are seropositive probably behave similarly to other people in a community with regard to exposing others to risk, and they are careful about not infecting others, especially if it is guaranteed that their environment supports them.     

Implementation of clinical guidelines through an electronic medical record: physician usage, satisfaction and assessment

CONTEXT: We developed and evaluated the Emergency Department Expert Charting System (EDECS) to provide real-time guidance regarding the care of low back pain in adults, fever in children, and occupational exposure to blood and body fluids in health care workers, by embedding clinical guidelines within an electronic medical record. OBJECTIVE: To describe the behaviors and attitudes of physicians who used EDECS. DESIGN: Pre-post questionnaires were used to assess physician attitudes. Time studies of the intervention phase were observational, using clocks embedded in the software. PARTICIPANTS: One hundred and forty two residents and interns in emergency, pediatric, internal, and family medicine and patients with the above-mentioned complaints. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Physician utilization of EDECS, time spent using EDECS, physician satisfaction and beliefs. RESULTS: Eighty four percent of the 142 eligible physicians used EDECS at least once. Five hundred and ninety one of 789 (75%) eligible cases were completed using EDECS. Median session time decreased from 12 min for session 1, to 5.5 min for sessions 16 and above. Physicians generally agreed that care with EDECS was better than standard care, particularly with respect to documentation. There was, however, considerable heterogeneity in belief among complaints. CONCLUSIONS: These data illuminate both the potentials of computer-assisted decision making and the need for context-specific approaches when attempting to implement guidelines.     

A look-back investigation of patients of an HIV-infected physician. Public health implications

BACKGROUND. Transmission of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) to five patients receiving care from an HIV-infected dentist in Florida has recently been reported. Current data indicate that the risk of HIV transmission from health care workers to patients is low. Despite this low risk, programs to notify patients of past exposure to an HIV-infected health care worker are being conducted with increasing frequency. METHODS. We recently conducted an investigation of all the patients cared for by an HIV-infected family physician during a period when he had severe dermatitis caused by Mycobacterium marinum on his hands and forearms. After reviewing the patients' records, we notified 336 patients who had undergone one or more procedures (digital examination of a body cavity or vaginal delivery) placing them at potentially increased risk of HIV infection. The patients were offered tests for HIV infection and counseling. RESULTS. Of the 336 patients, 325 (97 percent) had negative tests for HIV antibody, 3 (1 percent) refused testing, 1 (less than 1 percent) died of a cause unrelated to HIV infection before notification, and the HIV-antibody status of 7 (2 percent) remained unknown. The direct and indirect public health costs of this investigation were approximately $130,000. CONCLUSIONS. The results of this investigation raise important questions about the risk of HIV transmission from health care workers to patients and the usefulness of HIV look-back programs, particularly in the light of recently published recommendations from the Centers for Disease Control. We propose that before a look-back investigation is undertaken, there should be a clearly identifiable risk of transmission of the infection, substantially higher than the risk requiring limitation of an HIV-infected health care worker's practice prospectively.     

Opportunities and barriers for implementation of integrated TB and HIV care in lower level health units: experiences from a rural western Ugandan district

Background

As countries with a high burden of TB and HIV roll out integrated TB/HIV care, there is need to assess possibility of lower level health units treating TB to provide integrated TB/HIV care.

Objective

To determine barriers and opportunities for provision of integrated TB/HIV care in lower level health units offering TB treatment in Mbarara district, Uganda.

Methods

Conducted key informant interviews, interviewed health workers and observed services offered.

Results

22 health units were assessed and 88 health workers were interviewed. Of the 18 health units mandated to offer laboratory services, 55.6% and 38.9% were able to offer rapid HIV-testing and ZN staining respectively. Understaffing, lack of capacity to diagnose HIV and TB, lack of guidelines to inform care options of TB/HIV co-infected patients and insufficient knowledge and skills among health workers towards provision of integrated TB/HIV care were mentioned as barriers to provision of integrated TB/HIV services.

Conclusion

To offer integrated TB/HIV services at lower level health units currently offering TB stand alone services, there is need to address gaps in knowledge and skills among health workers, laboratory diagnostics, staffing levels, medical supplies and infrastructure.     

The incubation period of acute retroviral syndrome as a multistep process: a parametric survival analysis

A long duration of acute retroviral syndrome (ARS) and a short incubation of ARS (IncARS) are independent predictors of a fast progression to AIDS. The first objective of this study was to validate previous estimates of IncARS by comparing durations between health care workers (HCWs) accidentally infected by HIV and individuals infected by other routes (non-health care workers [N-HCWs]). The second objective was to use parametric survival models to generate hypotheses on various steps occurring during the IncARS. Data from a prospective cohort of patients with documented ARS and from individuals with ARS as the result of accidental exposure to HIV were analyzed. Nonparametric and parametric survival models were used to describe the incubation of ARS. No differences were found for the median IncARS between 34 HCWs (21.5 days) and 70 N-HCWs (21.5 days) (log-rank test, P = 0.72). According to survival models, IncARS can be modeled with a gamma and/or lognormal model with means of 26.4 days and 26.7 days, respectively. The gamma model suggests that 3 sequential stages are present during the IncARS, which is compatible with basic science investigations identifying crossing of the epithelial barrier by the virus, the virus-host cell interactions, and the viral systemic dissemination.     

Prevention of hepatitis B virus in athletic training

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is highly communicable and is the leading cause of acute and chronic liver disease worldwide. In recognition that 10,000 to 15,000 health care workers are becoming infected with HBV annually, the Occupational Health and Safety Administration has instituted strict regulations and guidelines concerning the handling of blood-borne pathogens. Due to the exposure to blood-borne pathogens and potentially infectious materials, athletic training is an allied health care profession that has an increased risk of exposure to HBV. Therefore, it is essential that athletic trainers employ extensive preventive strategies to decrease the exposure to this health-and life-threatening infection.     

The HIV specialist improves quality of care and outcomes

HAART has raised the bar for standards of care for HIV/AIDS. As patient outcomes improve, efforts are under way to address the infrastructure needed to continue to provide high-quality HIV care. Standards of care and treatment guidelines are updated regularly in an effort to keep up with our rapidly evolving understanding of HIV medicine. Two professional organizations have been formed in the past several years to address the needs of HIV care providers and patients. While there is slight variation between the 2 groups, both organizations define the HIV specialist in terms of clinical experience and continuing education and recognize that HIV care providers are a diverse group committed to managing this critical and constantly evolving epidemic. Several states have also developed initiatives that address the importance of health care quality and outcomes for people with HIV/AIDS. New York and California lead the way, and surely other states will follow. To ensure quality of care and continued good outcomes for our patients, managed care organizations and other providers of HIV care can now measure their own competence against these existing standards.     

Human parvovirus B19 infection among hospital staff members after contact with infected patients

In the spring and summer of 1988, two separate outbreaks of an illness with a rash resembling erythema infectiosum occurred among members of the nursing staff of the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia. The sources were two adolescent patients with sickle cell disease and aplastic crisis who had unsuspected parvovirus infection. Tests for IgM and IgG antibodies to parvovirus B19 were positive in both patients, and electron microscopical examination showed parvovirus-like particles in the early serum samples. Of 40 health care workers exposed to infected patients, 12 (30 percent) were infected, 2 (5 percent) were possibly infected, 8 (20 percent) had evidence of a past infection with B19, and 18 (45 percent) remained seronegative. Attack rates among the susceptible contacts were 36 percent in the first outbreak and at least 38 percent in the second. Clinical symptoms began a mean of 12.6 days after exposure and included malaise, rash, and joint pain. We conclude that hospital workers are at risk of contracting nosocomial erythema infectiosum from patients with parvovirus-associated aplastic crisis. We recommend that all patients with hereditary hemolytic anemias who are admitted with a febrile illness be evaluated for aplasia and promptly placed in respiratory and contact isolation if aplastic crisis is suspected.     

165例医务人员职业暴露分析

目的了解我院医务人员职业暴露情况。方法对我院2005-2009年职业暴露的人员结构、暴露源、暴露时的情况（暴露方式、暴露地点、暴露时防护措施）、暴露后处理（包括紧急处理、上报、预防用药、监测）等情况进行回顾性调查。结果共发生职业暴露165例,其中护士94例,医师59例,保洁人员12例。暴露源为艾滋病病毒/艾滋病（HIV/AIDS）64例,乙肝30例,丙肝5例,梅毒21例,狂犬病40例。暴露方式：锐器伤73例,完整皮肤60例,破损皮肤、粘膜32例。职业暴露发生于临床各科室。暴露时无任何防护措施101例,戴手套64例,穿隔离衣8例。紧急处理64例;立即上报58例。预防用药HIV/AIDS3例,乙肝13例,梅毒8例,狂犬病40例。定期检测HIV/AIDS42例,乙肝30例,丙肝5例,梅毒21例。目前无一例感染发生。结论职业暴露的高危人群主要是低年资、低职称、临床一线医务人员,暴露源以血源性传染疾病为主,暴露方式以锐器伤为主,ICU、手术室、呼吸内科等为血源性疾病职业暴露发生较多的科室,部分医务人员防护意识薄弱、未严格执行标准预防,正确处理是职业暴露后的重要补救措施。     

Withholding breast milk for HIV exposed infants in sub-Saharan Africa: benefit or harm?

Feeding options for HIV exposed infants has remained topical and controversial in most settings of sub-Saharan Africa. This commentary, expresses the author's opinions on this topical issue for and against breastfeeding or infant formula, with supporting evidence drawn from relevant literature on researches conducted in settings of sub-Saharan Africa. At the moment, it seems sensible to recommend that health care workers and policy makers should explore the options of making breastfeeding safer rather than withholding it for sub-Saharan African HIV exposed infants. It is hoped that when Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy (HAART) becomes universally accessible and available to HIV infected women in sub-Saharan Africa, breast milk HIV transmission will be a rare event and the health benefits of breastfeeding for the infant and mother will be maximized.     

The impact of the National HIV Health Care Worker Hotline on patient care in South Africa

Background  

South Africa has a huge burden of illness due to HIV infection. Many health care workers managing HIV infected patients, particularly those in rural areas and primary care health facilities, have minimal access to information resources and to advice and support from experienced clinicians. The Medicines Information Centre, based in the Division of Clinical Pharmacology at the University of Cape Town, has been running the National HIV Health Care Worker (HCW) Hotline since 2008, providing free information for HIV treatment-related queries via telephone, fax and e-mail.