Streptococcus pneumoniae-induced caspase 6-dependent apoptosis in lung epithelium

Streptococcus pneumoniae is the major pathogen of community-acquired pneumonia and one of the most common causes of death due to infectious diseases in industrialized countries. Lung epithelium lines the airways and constitutes the first line of innate defense against respiratory pathogens. Little is known about the molecular interaction of pneumococci with lung epithelial cells. Apoptosis of lung epithelium is involved in some bacterial lung infections. In this study different pneumococcal strains specifically induced either apoptotic or necrotic death of human alveolar and bronchial epithelial cells. Pneumococcus-induced apoptosis did not depend on the virulence factors pneumolysin and H(2)O(2). Apoptotic cells showed increased activity of caspases 6, 8, and 9 but not increased activity of caspase 3. Moreover, programmed cell death could be strongly reduced by a caspase 6 inhibitor and a pan-caspase inhibitor. Inhibitors of calpain and chymotrypsin- and trypsin-like proteases also reduced pneumococcus-induced apoptosis. Furthermore, pneumococcus-infected human alveolar epithelial cells showed Bid cleavage and reduced levels of Bcl2 and Bax. Overexpression of Bcl2 in these cells reduced apoptosis significantly. Thus, pneumococci induced apoptosis of human alveolar and bronchial epithelial cells. Programmed cell death was executed by caspase 6 and noncaspase proteases, but not by caspase 3, and could be blocked by overexpression of Bcl2.     

Tumor cell apoptosis induces tumor-specific immunity in a CC chemokine receptor 1- and 5-dependent manner in mice

The first step in the generation of tumor immunity is the migration of dendritic cells (DCs) to the apoptotic tumor, which is presumed to be mediated by various chemokines. To clarify the roles of chemokines, we induced apoptosis using suicide gene therapy and investigated the immune responses following tumor apoptosis. We injected mice with a murine hepatoma cell line, BNL 1ME A.7R.1 (BNL), transfected with HSV-thymidine kinase (tk) gene and then treated the animals with ganciclovir (GCV). GCV treatment induced massive tumor cell apoptosis accompanied with intratumoral DC infiltration. Tumor-infiltrating DCs expressed chemokine receptors CCR1 and CCR5, and T cells and macrophages expressed CCL3, a ligand for CCR1 and CCR5. Moreover, tumor apoptosis increased the numbers of DCs migrating into the draining lymph nodes and eventually generated a specific cytotoxic cell population against BNL cells. Although GCV completely eradicated HSV-tk-transfected BNL cells in CCR1-, CCR5-, or CCL3-deficient mice, intratumoral and intranodal DC infiltration and the subsequent cytotoxicity generation were attenuated in these mice. When parental cells were injected again after complete eradication of primary tumors by GCV treatment, the wild-type mice completely rejected the rechallenged cells, but the deficient mice exhibited impairment in rejection. Thus, we provide definitive evidence indicating that CCR1 and CCR5 and their ligand CCL3 play a crucial role in the regulation of intratumoral DC accumulation and the subsequent establishment of tumor immunity following induction of tumor apoptosis by suicide genes.     

Increased activity of caspase 3 and caspase 8 in anti-Fas-induced apoptosis in lymphocytes from ageing humans.

We have previously shown an increased susceptibility of T cell subsets to anti-Fas-induced apoptosis in human ageing [1]. In this study, we have examined the role of downstream mediators, including caspases, in Fas-mediated apoptosis in lymphocytes from ageing humans. The cleavage activity of caspase-8 and caspase-3 was compared between ageing and young subjects at different times following anti-Fas treatment, using colorimetric detection analysis. The expression of Fas-associated death domain (FADD), caspase-8, and caspase-3 in lymphocytes was compared at the protein level using Western blotting, and at the mRNA level by Northern blot analysis. In lymphocytes from ageing subjects, there was an early increase in the cleavage activity of caspase-8 and caspase-3 compared with young controls. Furthermore, increased protein expression of FADD, caspase-8 and caspase-3 at the basal level was observed in lymphocytes from ageing humans. Our results suggest that the altered expression and activity of molecules in the Fas/FasL signalling pathway may play a role in increased Fas-induced apoptosis and T cell deficiency in ageing humans.     

Induction of interleukin-8 secretion and apoptosis in bronchiolar epithelial cells by Fas ligation.

Epithelial cell injury is the common manifestation of lung injury. Contributing to such injury of epithelial cells is apoptosis. Although apoptosis is part of the normal process of epithelial renewal, in excess it is pathologic. We previously demonstrated the excessive apoptosis of lung epithelial cells and the upregulation of Fas and Fas ligand (FasL) in fibrosing lung diseases. We also showed that inhalation of anti-Fas antibody induced lung injury and fibrosis in mice. Interleukin (IL)-8 is one of the most important cytokines in the pathophysiology of acute lung injury and pulmonary fibrosis. In this study we investigated whether Fas ligation induces IL-8 secretion in addition to apoptosis in bronchiolar epithelial cells in vitro. Bronchiolar epithelial cells underwent apoptosis and also secreted IL-8 in response to tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha or Fas ligation. New gene expression and protein synthesis were not necessary for Fas ligation- and TNF-alpha- mediated apoptosis, but were necessary for IL-8 secretion. We further found that Fas ligation induced activation of nuclear factor-kappa B. We conclude that the Fas/FasL pathway not only mediates apoptosis but also plays a proinflammatory role, and that stimulation of the Fas/FasL pathway in bronchiolar epithelial cells leads to IL-8 production, which may amplify the inflammatory cascade in lung injury and pulmonary fibrosis.     

Rho kinase inhibition initiates apoptosis in human airway epithelial cells

Disruption of the actin cytoskeleton elicits profound changes in cell survival and function. The actin cytoskeleton is regulated in a hierarchical manner by Rho GTPases. Rho kinase, a downstream effector of RhoA, regulates the formation of stress fibers and focal adhesions. Disruption of the actin cytoskeleton causes apoptosis in airway epithelial cells. To examine further the relation of cytoskeletal integrity and apoptosis, we tested whether inhibition of Rho kinase would elicit apoptosis in airway epithelial cells. Inhibition with either Y-27632 or HA1077 induced membrane ruffling and loss of actin stress fibers, and apoptosis in airway epithelial cells that was blocked by inhibiting caspase function or by inhibiting protein synthesis. Cells overexpressing constitutively active Rho kinase, but not native Rho kinase, were resistant to Rho kinase inhibitor-induced stress fiber disruption and apoptosis. Inhibition of Rho kinase disrupted actin stress fibers but did not induce apoptosis in 3T3 cells. We demonstrate that Rho kinase inhibition induces airway epithelial cell apoptosis associated with changes in actin filament integrity. Our data suggest that Rho kinase may be a regulator of early initiation of apoptosis.     

人类端粒酶逆转录酶基因转染对足叶乙甙诱导Raji细胞凋亡的影响

探讨人类端粒酶逆转录酶 (hTERT)基因转入Raji细胞后足叶乙甙 (VP 16 )对细胞凋亡的影响。采用脂质体介导的转染方法将重组的hTERT基因转入Raji细胞 ,G4 18筛选 ;采用间接免疫荧光标记法及端粒酶聚合酶链反应 酶联免疫测定法检测hTERT蛋白表达水平和端粒酶活性的变化 ;姬姆萨染色及流式细胞仪观测细胞凋亡。结果发现 :转染hTERT入Raji细胞后 ,其表达hTERT的蛋白及端粒酶活性显著增加 (P <0.0 5 )。 10 μmol/LVP 16作用转染hTERT的Raji细胞 4 8h、72h对细胞生长抑制作用不如转染空载体组及未转染组明显 (P <0 .0 5 )。 10 μmol/LVP 16作用转染hTERT的Raji细胞 72h ,光镜下仅可见到很少量的细胞出现凋亡 ,流式细胞仪测定的细胞凋亡率 (4.34±1.0 3) %显著降低 ,分别与转染空载体组 (33.2 1± 3.12 ) %及未转染组 (31.6 3± 3.0 6 ) %比较 ,P <0.0 5。表明端粒酶活性过表达可使Raji细胞对VP 16产生抗凋亡作用     

Cloned Shiga toxin 2 B subunit induces apoptosis in Ramos Burkitt's lymphoma B cells

The Shiga toxins (Stx1 and Stx2), produced by Shigella dysenteriae type 1 and enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli, consist of one A subunit and five B subunits. The Stx1 and Stx2 B subunits form a pentameric structure that binds to globotriaosylceramide (Gb3-Cer) receptors on eukaryotic cells and promotes endocytosis. The A subunit then inhibits protein biosynthesis, which triggers apoptosis in the affected cell. In addition to its Gb3-Cer binding activity, the data in the following report demonstrate that the Stx2 B pentamer induces apoptosis in Ramos Burkitt's lymphoma B cells independently of A subunit activity. Apoptosis was not observed in A subunit-free preparations of the Stx1 B pentamer which competitively inhibited Stx2 B pentamer-mediated apoptosis. The pancaspase inhibitor, Z-VAD-fmk, prevented apoptosis in Ramos cells exposed to the Stx2 B subunit, Stx1 or Stx2. Brefeldin A, an inhibitor of the Golgi transport system, also prevented Stx2 B subunit-mediated apoptosis. These observations suggest that the Stx2 B subunit must be internalized, via Gb3-Cer receptors, to induce Ramos cell apoptosis. Moreover, unlike the two holotoxins, Stx2 B subunit-mediated apoptosis does not involve inhibition of protein biosynthesis. This study provides further insight into the pathogenic potential of this family of potent bacterial exotoxins.     

Valproic acid induces caspase 3-mediated apoptosis in microglial cells

Valproic acid is widely used for the treatment of epilepsy and mood disorders, but its mode of action is unclear. Treatment of neuronal cells with valproic acid promotes neurite sprouting, is neuroprotective and drives neurogenesis; however its effects on non-neuronal brain cells are less clear. We report that valproic acid induces apoptosis in the mouse microglial cell line, BV-2, at concentrations within the therapeutic range. When BV-2 cells were incubated for 24 h with 500–1000 μM valproic acid we observed a reduction in cell number, the appearance of apoptotic morphology and increased caspase 3 cleavage. Exposure of a macrophage cell line (RAW 264.7) to similar concentrations of valproic acid also led to reduced cell number but no caspase 3 cleavage, suggesting these cells responded to valproic acid with reduced proliferation rather than apoptosis. This was confirmed using bromodeoxyuridine incorporation studies. Similar concentrations of valproic acid added to Neuro-2a, SK-N-SH and C6 cell lines as well as human NTera-2 astrocytes did not evoke cell death. The caspase 3 inhibitor DEVD-CHO inhibited valproic acid-induced apoptosis in BV-2 cells whereas the MEK inhibitor U0126 potentiated valproic acid-mediated apoptosis. These results demonstrate that valproic acid selectively induces apoptosis in BV-2 cells by way of a caspase 3-mediated action. As activated microglia secrete neurotoxins in neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and HIV dementia, valproic acid may alleviate these diseases by selectively killing microglia.     

Adsorbed fibrinogen regulates the behavior of human dendritic cells in a CD18-dependent manner

The involvement of fibrinogen in inflammation has been considered by many, but the roles of the protein in that process have yet to be fully elucidated. The protein readily coats surfaces and is deposited at sites of inflammation. Furthermore, adsorbed fibrinogen influences many cells of the immune system, likely a result of increased receptor recognition upon ligand immobilization. To better understand adsorbed fibrinogen's role in inflammation, we studied the effects of the protein, adsorbed to the surface of microscopic beads, on human dendritic cells. Adsorbed fibrinogen increased dendritic cell expression of IL-6, IL-8, MIP-1beta and MCP-1. In contrast, solution phase fibrinogen had no effect. Importantly, dendritic cells formed complexes with, and subsequently accumulated around, beads in fibrinogen-dependent fashion. Antibodies directed against CD18 significantly decreased cytokine/chemokine expression and bead-cell complexation. Epsilon-aminocaproic acid limited bead-cell complexation, suggesting fibrinogen degradation products modulate dendritic cell activity. In support of this proposal, fibrinogen fragment D also increased MCP-1 expression by human dendritic cells. Taken together our data indicate adsorbed fibrinogen and its degradation products directly influence human dendritic cell operation. We propose a model whereby adsorbed fibrinogen plays a distinct causatory role in inflammation through its beta(2) integrin-mediated interaction with dendritic cells.     

Strain-dependent induction of enterocyte apoptosis by Giardia lamblia disrupts epithelial barrier function in a caspase-3-dependent manner

We recently demonstrated that Giardia lamblia rearranges cytoskeletal proteins and reduces transepithelial electrical resistance. The effect of G. lamblia on enterocyte apoptosis is unknown, and a possible link between microbially induced enterocyte apoptosis and altered epithelial permeability has yet to be established. The aim of this study was to assess whether G. lamblia induces enterocyte apoptosis in duodenal epithelial monolayers and whether this effect increases epithelial permeability. Monolayers of nontransformed human duodenal epithelial cells were incubated with sonicated or live G. lamblia trophozoites (NF, S2, WB, or PB strains) for 8, 24, and 48 h. Cell cultures were assessed for apoptosis by Hoechst fluorescence staining, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for apoptotic nucleosomes, and electron microscopy. In separate experiments, monolayers were pretreated with or without 120 microM caspase-3 inhibitor (Z-DEVD-FMK) for 1 h and were assessed for production of apoptotic nucleosomes, tight junctional integrity (with fluorescent ZO-1 staining followed by confocal laser microscopy), and transepithelial permeability for fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran. G. lamblia strains NF and S2, but not strains WB or PB, induced enterocyte apoptosis within the monolayers, and this effect was inhibited by Z-DEVD-FMK pretreatment. Using the G. lamblia NF isolate, additional experiments investigated the possible link between enterocyte apoptosis and altered epithelial permeability. G. lamblia NF disrupted tight junctional ZO-1 and increased epithelial permeability, but these effects were also prevented by pretreatment with the caspase-3 inhibitor. These findings indicate that strain-dependent induction of enterocyte apoptosis may contribute to the pathogenesis of giardiasis. This effect is responsible for a loss of epithelial barrier function by disrupting tight junctional ZO-1 and increasing permeability in a caspase-3-dependent manner.     

Butyric acid-induced T-cell apoptosis is mediated by caspase-8 and -9 activation in a Fas-independent manner

Our previous study demonstrated that butyric acid, an extracellular metabolite of periodontopathic bacteria, induced apoptosis in murine thymocytes, splenic T cells, and human Jurkat cells. In this study, we examined whether CD95 ligand-receptor interaction is involved in butyric acid-induced T-cell apoptosis. Flow cytometry analysis indicated that expression of Fas in Jurkat and T cells from peripheral blood mononuclear cells was not affected by butyric acid treatment. Furthermore, the expression of Fas and FasL protein in Western blotting was not affected by butyric acid treatment. Coincubation with blocking anti-Fas antibodies prevented Fas-induced apoptosis but not butyric acid-induced apoptosis. Anti-FasL antibodies also did not prevent butyric acid-induced apoptosis at any dose examined. Although cytotoxic anti-Fas antibody affected butyric acid-induced apoptosis, a synergistic effect was not seen. Time-dependent activation of caspase-8 and -9 was recognized in butyric acid- as well as Fas-mediated apoptosis. IETD-CHO and LEHD-CHO, specific inhibitors of caspase-8 and -9, respectively, completely blocked Fas-mediated apoptosis and partially prevented butyric acid-induced apoptosis. These results suggest that the Fas-FasL interaction is not involved in butyric acid-induced apoptosis and that caspase-8 and -9-dependent apoptosis plays an important role in butyric acid-induced apoptosis, as well as Fas-induced apoptosis.     

Fas ligation triggers apoptosis in macrophages but not endothelial cells

The reticuloendothelial system includes macrophages and endothelial cells. These cells are produced and destroyed in vivo with a precision that implies the existence of homeostatic mechanisms. The stimuli for endothelial cell proliferation and monocyte production are becoming well characterized. However, the mechanisms involved in eliminating these cells are poorly understood. One mechanism involved in cellular elimination is apoptosis, which can be triggered in some cells by ligation of the Fas molecule. In this report we have investigated whether macrophages and endothelial cells express the Fas molecule, and whether Fas transmits an apoptosis-inducing signal in these cells. We demonstrate that macrophages express Fas and readily undergo apoptosis when cultured with anti-Fas. In contrast, while endothelial cells can express the Fas molecule, Fas ligation is insufficient to induce apoptosis. These results suggest differential regulation of Fas function among cells of the reticuloendothelial system, and imply different mechanisms of homeostasis.     

肠道病毒71型诱导Bax依赖的细胞凋亡

目的研究肠道病毒71型（EV71）诱导细胞凋亡的分子机制。方法采用CCK8比色法检测EVT1感染对于人横纹肌肉瘤细胞RD增殖的影响,通过Hoechst33342染色和Caspase3活性测定检测细胞凋亡特征,用WesternBlot方法检测凋亡相关蛋白Caspase3和8的激活。同时通过免疫共沉淀检测EV71感染后细胞内Bax的活化。结果EV71感染RD细胞可以明显抑制细胞增殖,引起Caspase3、8和PARP蛋白的激活,同时引起Bax蛋白表达增加并发生构象变化。结论EV71通过Bax构象变化诱导Caspase依赖的细胞凋亡。