低频重复经颅磁刺激对精神分裂症认知功能影响的随机双盲对照研究

目的评价低频重复经颅磁刺激(rTMS)对精神分裂症患者认知功能的影响及其安全性。方法 31例幻听症状突出的精神分裂症患者随机分组,治疗组21例接受真刺激联合药物治疗,对照组10例接受伪刺激联合药物治疗。用威斯康星卡片分类测验(WCST)、可反复测查的成套神经心理状态评估工具(RBANS)、持续操作测验(CPT)、Stroop字色干扰测验评价认知功能。治疗前后进行脑电图、心电图、血常规及生化检查,记录不良反应。采用重复测量方差分析比较两组各量表得分在6周内变化趋势的差异。结果治疗组与对照组相比,治疗10次后WCST的正确应答数显著提高(F=8.06,P0.01);RBANS的视觉广度分值显著改善(F=6.46,P0.05),言语功能分值也显著改善(F=6.24,P0.05)。治疗20次后WCST的正确应答数显著提高(F=3.36,P0.05),完成分类数(F=3.57,P0.05)也显著提高;RBANS的即刻记忆分值显著改善(F=4.50,P0.05),言语功能分值亦显著改善(F=6.67,P0.01)。rTMS治疗后脑电图无异常变化,未发现明显不良反应。结论低频rTMS可改善精神分裂症执行、记忆和言语功能且安全性好。     

康复期双相情感障碍和精神分裂症患者认知功能比较

目的探讨康复期双相障碍和精神分裂症患者认知损害的差异。方法对47例康复期精神分裂症以及37例康复期双相障碍患者进行数字符号、数字广度、连线测验A、B、视觉再生、以及威斯康星卡片分类测试等神经心理测试,对比两组患者在瞬间记忆、短时记忆、图像记忆、注意力以及执行功能等认知功能方面的差异。结果双相情感障碍组数字广度的倒背数(t=2.539,P0.05)及威斯康星卡片分类测试(WCST)分类个数(t=2.482,P0.05)多于分裂症组;分裂症组WCST错误数多于双相障碍组(t=-2.298,P0.05),差别有统计学意义。其中男性双相情感障碍组仅在数字广度的倒背数及总分数多于男性分裂症组(t=2.109,2.014;P0.05),差别有统计学意义。结论双相障碍患者多方面的认知功能损害小于精神分裂症的患者,提示双相障碍的预后好于精神分裂症。     

多奈哌齐治疗男性精神分裂症认知功能障碍的疗效

目的探讨多奈哌齐治疗男性住院慢性精神分裂症认知功能障碍的疗效。方法采用双盲方法,将120例男性住院慢性精神分裂症患者随机分为两组,在原服用利培酮的基础上,分别合用多奈哌齐或安慰剂治疗。疗程12周。于治疗前和治疗2、4、8和12周末各测查1次中文版重复性成套神经心理状态测验(RBANS)和不良反应量表(TESS)。结果 12周后多奈哌齐组患者RBANS总分及即刻记忆、言语功能、注意、延时记忆4组神经心理状态的分值均较基线增高,且有统计学意义(t=2.480-5.913,P<0.05或P<0.01),而安慰剂组RBANS各项分值与基线比较则无明显改变(P>0.05)。两组不良反应均无统计学意义。结论多奈哌齐治疗住院男性慢性精神分裂症的认知功能障碍安全、有效。     

帕利哌酮对首发精神分裂症的疗效和认知功能的影响

目的探讨帕利哌酮对首发精神分裂症患者的疗效及认知功能的影响。方法对42例首发精神分裂症患者给予帕利哌酮治疗12周,治疗前后进行修订韦氏成人记忆量表(WMS-RC)记忆广度(MS)、威斯康星卡片分类测验(WCST)和阳性与阴性症状量表(PANSS)等评定,并与45例正常人对照。结果研究组治疗12周后,PANSS量表各项指标分值均较治疗前有显著下降(P<0.01)。研究组治疗前后WCST卡片总数(t=3.93,P=0.000)、持续错误(t=2.09,P=0.039)、随机错误(t=3.78,P=0.000)、WMS-RC总分(t=2.37,P=0.020)、记忆商数(t=4.20,P=0.000)均有显著性差异。研究组治疗后在上述WCST、MS数字广度与对照组比较仍有显著性差异(P均<0.05)。治疗前WCST卡片总数、持续错误、随机错误与PANSS总分呈正相关,而WMS-RC总分、记忆商数与阴性症状因子分呈负相关。结论帕利哌酮对精神分裂症有良好的疗效,并能改善认知功能障碍。     

冲动性和攻击性对大学新生自杀意念的影响

目的:探讨冲动性、攻击性对大学新生自杀意念的影响,为大学生自杀预防与干预工作提供依据。方法:采用Beck自杀意念量表中文版、Barratt冲动性量表中文版、Buss和Perry攻击问卷中文版对成都市某高校1356名大一新生进行调查。结果:自杀意念发生率为31.64%,女大学生自杀意念发生率高于男性(χ2=4.287,P0.05);女大学生冲动性量表总分(t=-2.796,P0.01)、行为冲动性(t=-2.670,P0.01)、认知冲动性分量表分(t=-3.179,P0.005)及愤怒分量表分(t=-2.434,P0.05)高于男大学生,男大学生躯体攻击分量表分高于女大学生(t=7.487,P0.001);有自杀意念大学生冲动性量表总分、行为冲动性、认知冲动性分量表得分、攻击性量表总分及各分量表得分均高于无自杀意念大学生(t=3.942,5.597,2.070,7.559,2.653,4.251,4.846,7.507,7.466;P均0.05);女性(OR=1.736)、敌意(OR=1.036)和指向自我的攻击分值高(OR=1.038)是自杀意念的危险因素;指向自我攻击因子得分对大学生自杀意念水平具有预测作用(R2=0.157)。结论:大学生自杀意念受冲动性和攻击性的影响。     

阿立哌唑和奋乃静对首发精神分裂症患者认知功能的影响

目的探讨阿立哌唑和奋乃静对首发精神分裂症患者认知功能的影响。方法 86例首发精神分裂症患者随机均分为阿立哌唑组和奋乃静组,在治疗前和治疗3月后作数字广度(顺、逆)、即刻逻辑记忆、延迟逻辑记忆、即刻视觉记忆、延迟视觉记忆、连线测验A和B、字色混淆测验(Stroop)以及威斯康星卡片分类测验(W CST)等神经心理测验。结果治疗3个月后同组间相比较:阿立哌唑组除视觉记忆外其他各项认知功能指标均有所好转(即刻视觉记忆t=0.029,延迟视觉记忆t=0.032,P均0.05;其余项目t=2.562～4.658,P0.05或P0.01),而奋乃静组在13项认知功能指标中有5项恶化,主要在逻辑记忆(t=2.747和3.290,P均0.01)和执行功能方面(S troopC-W评分t=2.819,P0.01);两组间相比较:阿立哌唑组除视觉记忆外各项认知功能测查结果均明显好于奋乃静组(即刻视觉记忆t=0.093,延迟视觉记忆t=0.048,P均0.05;其余项目t=2.635～5.748,P0.05或P0.01)。结论阿立哌唑对首发精神分裂症患者的认知功能有改善作用,而奋乃静对认知功能的某些领域有损害。     

歌曲治疗技术对慢性精神分裂症患者精神症状和认知功能的影响

目的:探讨歌曲治疗技术对慢性精神分裂症患者精神症状和认知功能的影响。方法:采用随机对照研究,选取长期住院的慢性精神分裂症患者133例,按治疗组:对照组=2:1的比例随机分组,治疗组接受常规精神科药物治疗辅助"歌曲治疗技术",对照组只接受常规精神科药物治疗,应用阳性与阴性症状量表(PANSS)和重复性神经心理状态测验(RBANS)于治疗前、治疗后对患者的精神症状和认知功能进行评定。结果:治疗3个月后,歌曲治疗技术对PANSS测评的阴性症状(β=-0.259,P0.001)有显著性降低作用,对PANSS总分(β=-0.112,P=0.057)有边缘性的降低作用;歌曲治疗技术对RBANS测评的认知功能(即刻记忆、视觉空间结构、言语功能、注意和延迟记忆)没有显著的改变作用(P0.05)。结论:歌曲治疗技术可以改善慢性精神分裂症患者的精神症状,尤其是药物治疗难以改善的阴性症状;3个月的歌曲治疗技术对于慢性精神分裂症患者的认知功能没有显著性的改善作用,其有待进一步研究认证。     

伴与不伴糖尿病的精神分裂症患者认知功能的性别差异

目的:评估伴与不伴糖尿病的精神分裂症患者的认知功能,探讨两者之间认知功能的性别差异。方法:选取符合美国精神障碍诊断与统计手册第4版(DSM-IV)的精神分裂症患者363例,其中伴糖尿病的精神分裂症患者161例(男97例,女64例)和不伴糖尿病的精神分裂症患者202例(男125例,女77例)。用重复性成套心理状态测验(RBANS)评估认知功能,测空腹血糖、糖化血红蛋白和血脂。结果:男性精神分裂症患者中,伴糖尿病的患者比不伴糖尿病的患者RBANS总分低[(67±14)vs.(74±15),P0.01],特别是注意功能得分[(71±19)vs(84±15),P0.001]。伴糖尿病的精神分裂症患者中,与女性相比,男性认知功能总分和分量表分较低(均P0.01),糖化血红蛋白较高[(6.8±1.2)%vs.(6.2±1.3)%,P0.05)],高密度脂蛋白胆固醇较低[(1.2±0.4)mmol/L vs.(1.4±0.3)mmol/L,P0.01],发病年龄较早[(24.7±5.1)vs.(27.4±8.6),P0.01]。男性患者糖化血红蛋白与注意功能和RBANS总分负相关(r=-0.34,P0.05)和(r=-0.33,P0.05),而女性患者没有这种相关性。在不伴糖尿病的精神分裂症患者中,男性患者只有即刻记忆和延时记忆比女性低(66±18)vs.(73±21),P0.05;(72±19)vs.(81±19),P0.01]。结论:男性精神分裂症认知功能比女性受损严重,合并的糖尿病可能加重认知功能的性别差异。     

英语语言训练对恢复期住院精神分裂症患者认知功能的影响

目的探讨英语语言训练对恢复期住院精神分裂症患者认知功能的影响。方法应用英语语言训练的方法对50例符合ICD-10精神分裂症诊断标准的住院精神分裂症患者进行听、说、读、写训练。每日1次,每次训练时间45分钟,为期8周。分别于训练前、训练结束时应用Stroop测验的彩色文字阅读和彩色文字颜色阅读(Stroop-C,Stroop-CW)、连线测验A和B(TMT-A,TMT-B)、中国修订韦氏成人智力量表(WAIS-RC)的数字广度测验、韦氏记忆量表-Ⅲ(WMS-Ⅲ)的空间广度测验和言语流畅性测验(VFT)对患者的认知功能进行测评。结果 50例全部完成了8周的训练。训练前和训练结束时Stroop-C(t=-8.602)、Stroop-CW(t=-17.648)、TMT-A(t=10.298)、TMT-B(t=15.145)、数字广度测验-顺行(t=-10.266)、数字广度测验-逆行(t=-11.235)、空间广度测验-顺行(t=-10.923)、空间广度测验-逆行(t=-10.753)、VFT(t=-9.882)评分比较差异有统计学意义(P<0.01)。结论英语语言训练对恢复期住院精神分裂症患者的认知功能有明显的改善作用。     

重复性成套神经心理状态测验的信度、效度分析

目的:对用于精神障碍患者认知功能测评的重复性成套神经心理状态测验(Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status,RBANS)中文版的信度和效度作初步验证.方法:从北京市城乡方便取样,做横断面调查,451名健康人群完成RBANS测验,其中97人同时完成简易韦氏成人智力、韦氏记忆测验考察效标效度;41人间隔12周再次进行了RBANS测验.对获取的数据进行相关分析和因子分析.结果:反映内部一致性的Cronbach α系数在RBANS总量表为0.90,在即刻记忆、视觉广度、言语功能、注意、延迟记忆分量表分别为0.86,0.68,0.67,0.85,0.80.总量表的重测信度为0.90,5个分量表的重测信度分别为0.65,0.68,0.53,0.80,0.79(P均＜0.01).以简易韦氏成人智力、韦氏记忆测验为效标,结果除简易韦氏成人智力量表的言语得分与RBANS量表的视觉空间因子间相关性无统计学意义,RBANS与简易韦氏成人智力和韦氏记忆量表总分和各因子分均存在有统计学意义的正相关(r=0.21-0.59,P均＜0.01).验证性因素分析结果x2/df为4.13,相对拟合指数(CFI)为0.91,非范拟合指数(NNFI)为0.93,近似均方根误差(RMSEA)为0.079.12个分测验的完全标准化解(MI)分别为:0.80,0.74,0.61,0.38,0.61,0.90,0.66,0.60,0.81,0.60,0.81,0.73.结论:重复性成套神经心理状态测验是一个信效度比较好的认知功能评定工具.     

Schizophrenia in a North Swedish geographical isolate, 1900–1977. Epidemiology, genetics and biochemistry

Over 200 schizophrenic patients belonging to three major and interrelated pedigree complexes have been investigated over the past 30 years in a North Swedish geographically isolated population, presently numbering about 6,000. An intensive investigation of a number of biochemical correlates and genetic markers in a few selected families belonging to one of the major pedigrees has indicated new strategies for the current research program.
Schizophrenia, as defined operationally, is significantly associated with decreased activities of two enzymes (1) blood platelet monoamine oxidase, (2) plasma dopamine-β-hydroxylase, and (3) with the genetic marker Gc² (group specific antigen). Both enzymes are subject to genetic variation. A positive score for linkage between schizophrenia and low plasma DBH activity has been calculated, but, so far, available data are insufficient for discrimination between linkage and partial contribution of genetically controlled low plasma DBH to the pathogenesis of the disease. Alternatively, both mechanisms could be involved.
As a model for continued research, schizophrenia is explained as based on a double dominant-recessive genotype (Aabb), representing a vulnerability which in about 50 % of cases develops into clinical schizophrenia. It is suggested that the dominant mutation (A) operates on or affects MAO activity, and that the recessive genotype (bb) is instrumental in low variates of DBH activity and very likely such variates within the normal range of physiological variation. Moreover, it is suggested that the combined effects of MAO- and DBH-reduced efficiency on the metabolism of e.g. dopamine could be an essential pathogenic mechanism for the schizophrenic illness which is segregating in this population.     

The universal muscular chain reaction,muscle spasm,Torsions, ruptures and extravasations. Chameleons of pathology and some manifestations of simple muscular disorders

Most bodily functions require the coordinated actions of complementary and supplementary paired muscle groups. Where this essential muscular cooperation is lacking, hollow organs may burst and others become literally screwed up, giving rise to many similar spastic diseases such as Torticollis, Twisted ovarian cyst, Torsion of the Testis, Volvulus of the intestines, Varicose Veins, Megacolon, Aortamegaly, Scoliosis, Erb's Palsy, Peyronie's Disease, Main-en-Griffe, Undescended Foot (Pes Cavus), Talipes, Strabismus. Spasm is “panenepidemic” and unclassified examples of Torsion Dystonia and Dyskinesia really are as common as debt and taxes.     

The dominant diseases of modernized societies as omega-3 essential fatty acid deficiency syndrome: Substrate beriberi

About 1900, modern food selection and processing caused widespread $\text{epidemics}$ of the B vitamin deficiency diseases of beriberi and pellagra which, for genetic reasons, often expressed as different diseases ranging from bowel and heart disease to dermatoses and psychoses. But the B vitamins merely help convert essential fatty acids (EFA) into the prostaglandin (PG) tissue regulators and it now turns out that, through hydrogenation, milling and selection of w3-poor southern foods, we have also been systematically depleting, by as much as 90%, a newly discovered trace Nordic EFA (w3) of special importance to primates and sole precursor of the PG3(4) series, even as a concurrent fiber deficiency increases body demand for EFA. Since substrate EFA is processed by many B vitamin catalysts, an EFA deficiency will mimic a $\text{panh}$ypovitaminosis B, i.e., a mixture of $\text{substrate}$ beriberi and $\text{substrate}$ pellagra resembling vitamin beriberi and pellagra but exhibiting as even more diverse $\text{endemic}$ disease. This would consitute a second stage of the Modern Malnutrition and explain why some workers now hold the dominant diseases of modermized societies to be new, nutritionally based, pellagraform yet lipid-related and to range, once again, from heart disease to psychosis. It is an assumption that our dominant diseases are unrelated to each other or are merely revealed by our diagnostic acumen and therapeutic success; and that hydrogenating millions of tons of food oils annually, to destroy the rancidity producing w3-EFA, is safe for $\text{primates}$. Extensive beriberiform disease is reported here in 32 typical cases taken from medical practice which responds strikingly to linseed oil supplements (60% w3-EFA) in confirmation of identical results in Capuchins.     

Hypo- und Hypermagnesämie aus kardiologischer Sicht

Zusammenfassung Eine Reihe pathologischer Zustände bedingen Magnesiummangel. Zustände mit Hypermagnesämie sind ebenfalls bekannt, doch wesentlich seltener. Für den Kardiologen beachtenswert ist, daß unter Therapie mit bestimmten Diuretica bei Herzinsuffizienz, bei Herzinfarkt, Kardiomyopathie, Digitalisintoxikation und bestimmten Herzrhythmusstörungen Hypomagnesämie beobachtet wurde. Leider kann in der klinischen Routine nur ein extracelluläres Magnesiumdefizit durch Serumbestimmungen gemessen werden; über Magnesiummangel einzelner Organe kann nichts ausgesagt werden. Hinweise für Magnesiummangel geben aber neben der Messung des Serumspiegels Anamnese, klinischer Befund, bestimmte EKG-Veränderungen wie auch evtl. Hypokalämie, ein Zustand, bei dem sich oft — besonders bei Aldosteronismus — parallele Veränderungen zeigten.Tierexperimente deuten darauf hin, daß infarktähnliche Läsionen unter Magnesiummangel entstehen, doch ob Herzinfarkt beim Menschen durch Magnesiummangel ausgelöst werden kann, ist noch ungeklärt. In Leichenherzen zeigte sich im Infarktgebiet neben Calciumakkumulation signifikanter Magnesiumverlust, wobei unklar blieb, ob sich Ursache oder Folge des Infarktes widerspiegelten. Falls ein ursächlicher Zusammenhang besteht, ist er im Myokardstoffwechsel selbst zu suchen, wie bei der Alkoholkardiomyopathie, wo myokardialer Magnesiummangel zumindest als pathogenetischer Teilfaktor anerkannt wird. Andererseits versucht man aber auch Beziehungen zwischen Atherosklerose, Blutgerinnung und Hypomagnesämie herzustellen, in der Meinung, daß Magnesiummangel auch über den coronaren Pathomechanismus des Herzinfarktes wirken könnte. Sicher scheint, daß gewisse EKG-Veränderungen und Herzrhythmusstörungen durch einen irritierten Magnesiumhaushalt bedingt sein können, da sie bei Gabe bzw. Entzug von Magnesium verschwinden. Daß Magnesiummangel die Glykosidtoleranz verringert, wird tierexperimentell bestätigt. Unter Hypomagnesämie bewirkt Acetylstrophanthidin eher und länger Rhythmusstörungen als ohne, außerdem lassen diese sich durch Magnesiumgaben eliminieren. Da in gewissen Fällen spontane und digitalisinduzierte Herzrythmusstörungen durch Magnesiuminjektionen beseitigt wurden, scheint Magnesium als Therapeuticum angebracht. Einsatz verschiedener Magnesiumsalze bei Angina pectoris, degenerativen Herzerkrankungen und Herzinsuffizienz ohne geprüften und offensichtlich gestörten Magnesiumhaushalt ist fragwürdig, weil keine eindeutigen klinischen Erfolgsbeweise vorliegen. Immerhin mag es aber larvierte, durch Serumbestimmungen nicht erfaßbare Mangelzustände geben. Allgemein erscheint es aus kardiologischer Sicht ratsam, den Magnesiumhaushalt zu überwachen und in entsprechenden Fällen auszugleichen, um möglichen Myokardläsionen oder fatalen Herzrhythmusstörungen entgegenzuwirken.     

Environmental risk factors and their role in the management of atopic dermatitis

Introduction: The etiology of atopic dermatitis (AD) is multifactorial with interaction between genetics, immune and environmental factors.

Areas covered: We review the role of prenatal exposures, irritants and pruritogens, pathogens, climate factors, including temperature, humidity, ultraviolet radiation, outdoor and indoor air pollutants, tobacco smoke exposure, water hardness, urban vs. rural living, diet, breastfeeding, probiotics and prebiotics on AD.

Expert commentary: The increased global prevalence of AD cannot be attributed to genetics alone, suggesting that evolving environmental exposures may trigger and/or flare disease in predisposed individuals. There is a complex interplay between different environmental factors, including individual use of personal care products and exposure to climate, pollution, food and other exogenous factors. Understanding these complex risk factors is crucial to developing targeted interventions to prevent the disease in millions. Moreover, patients require counseling on optimal regimens for minimization of exposure to irritants and pruritogens and other harmful exposures.     

HLA genes in Amerindians from Mexico San Vicente Tancuayalab Teenek/Huastecos

Huastecos or Teenek Amerindians are presently living at North East Mexico (San Luis Potosi State). They have probably one of the most ancient culture of Mexico and Central America together with Mayas and Olmec groups with which also show close relationships. Proximity to Atlantic Ocean/Mexican Gulf originated that Spaniards had very early contact with them at about 1519 CE or before. In the present paper we have aimed to study HLA gene profile which may be useful for HLA and disease epidemiology and transplant programs in Teeneks. HLA-DRB1*04:07, -DRB1*14:06 and -DRB1*04:11 have been found in high frequency like in other Amerindian groups. High frequency typical Amerindians HLA extended haplotypes have been found, such as A*02-B*35-DRB1*04:07-DQB1*03:02; A*68-B*39-DRB1*04:07-DQB1*03:02 and A*02-B*39-DRB1*04:07-DQB1*03:02; also new haplotypes have been described, like A*02-B*52-DRB1*04:11-DQB1*03:02, A*68-B*35-DRB1*14:02-DQB1*03:01 and A*68-B*40-DRB1*16:02-DQB1*03:01. Genetic proximity is observed not only to linguistically close Mayans, but also to Mazatecans, Mixtecans and Zapotecans, who speak an altogether different languages; it shows once more that genes and languages do not correlate. This population was greatly diminished after European contact between 1500 and 1600 years CE; in fact, North and South America First Inhabitants population was brought from 80 down to 8 million people because of diseases (i.e.: measles, smallpox or influenza), slavery and war.     

'Very sore nights and days': the child's experience of illness in early modern England, c.1580-1720

Sick children were ubiquitous in early modern England, and yet they have received very little attention from historians. Taking the elusive perspective of the child, this article explores the physical, emotional, and spiritual experience of illness in England between approximately 1580 and 1720. What was it like being ill and suffering pain? How did the young respond emotionally to the anticipation of death? It is argued that children’s experiences were characterised by profound ambivalence: illness could be terrifying and distressing, but also a source of emotional and spiritual fulfilment and joy. This interpretation challenges the common assumption amongst medical historians that the experiences of early modern patients were utterly miserable. It also sheds light on children’s emotional feelings for their parents, a subject often overlooked in the historiography of childhood. The primary sources used in this article include diaries, autobiographies, letters, the biographies of pious children, printed possession cases, doctors’ casebooks, and theological treatises concerning the afterlife.     

Guidelines for the Validation and Use of Immunoassays for Determination of Introduced Proteins in Biotechnology Enhanced Crops and Derived Food Ingredients

Recent advancements in agricultural biotechnology have created a need for analytical techniques to determine introduced proteins in crops enhanced through modern biotechnology techniques. These proteins are expressed in plant tissues and may be present in food ingredients. Immunoassays are ideally suited for protein detection and may be used as both quantitative and threshold methods. Microplate ELISA and lateral flow devices are two of the most commonly used immunoassay formats for agricultural biotechnology applications. This paper provides general background information and a discussion of criteria for the validation and application of immunochemical methods to the analysis of proteins introduced into plants and food ingredients using biotechnology methods. It is the result of a collaborative effort of members of the Analytical Environmental Immunochemical Consortium. This collaborative effort represents the combined expertise of several organizations to reach consensus on establishing guidelines for the validation and use of immunoassays. Further, the paper offers developers and users a consistent approach to adopting the technology as well as aid in producing accurate and meaningful results.     

Ultracryotomy: development and application (with examples from the yeast cytology) (author's transl)

The preparation steps usually necessary for obtaining ultrathin frozen sections of biological material (chemical prefixation, enclosing, cryoprotective treatment, freezing, sectioning, and post-staining the sections for transmission electron microscopy) are submitted to a critical analysis. The application of cryo-ultramicrotomy, in particularly for cytochemical purposes, is reviewed. Fundamental considerations of chemical prefixation and poststaining are supported by examples from yeast cytology. Furthermore, the efficiency of the cryo-ultramicrotomy (electron optical resolution of ultrastructural details) is demonstrated on yeast cells and protoplasts.