Risk stratification of patients with acute symptomatic pulmonary embolism

Patients with acute symptomatic pulmonary embolism (PE) who present with arterial hypotension or shock have a high risk of death (high-risk PE), and treatment guidelines recommend strong consideration of thrombolysis in this setting. For normotensive patients diagnosed with PE, risk stratification should aim to differentiate the group of patients deemed as having a low risk for early complications (all-cause mortality, recurrent venous thromboembolism, and major bleeding) (low-risk PE) from the group of patients at higher risk for PE-related complications (intermediate-high risk PE), so low-risk patients could undergo consideration of early outpatient treatment of PE and intermediate-high risk patients would undergo close observation and consideration of thrombolysis. Clinicians should also use risk stratification and eligibility criteria to identify a third group of patients that should not undergo escalated or home therapy (intermediate-low risk PE). Such patients should initiate standard therapy of PE while in the hospital. Clinical models [e.g., Pulmonary Embolism Severity Index (PESI), simplified PESI (sPESI)] may accurately identify those at low risk of dying shortly after the diagnosis of PE. For identification of intermediate-high risk patients with acute PE, studies have validated predictive models that use a combination of clinical, laboratory and imaging variables.     

Risk stratification of normotensive patients with acute symptomatic pulmonary embolism

Treatment guidelines recommend strong consideration of thrombolysis in patients with acute symptomatic pulmonary embolism (PE) that present with arterial hypotension or shock because of the high risk of death in this setting. For haemodynamically stable patients with PE, the categorization of risk for subgroups may assist with decision-making regarding PE therapy. Clinical models [e.g. Pulmonary Embolism Severity Index (PESI)] may accurately identify those at low risk of overall death in the first 3 months after the diagnosis of PE, and such patients might benefit from an abbreviated hospital stay or outpatient therapy. Though some evidence suggests that a subset of high-risk normotensive patients with PE may have a reasonable risk to benefit ratio for thrombolytic therapy, single markers of right ventricular dysfunction (e.g. echocardiography, spiral computed tomography, or brain natriuretic peptide testing) and myocardial injury (e.g. cardiac troponin T or I testing) have an insufficient positive predictive value for PE-specific mortality to drive decision-making toward such therapy. Recommendations for outpatient treatment or thrombolytic therapy for patients with PE necessitate further development of prognostic models and conduct of clinical trials that assess various treatment strategies.     

急性肺栓塞危险分层与治疗

急性肺血栓栓塞症(急性肺栓塞)的临床谱较广，其表现主要决定于肺栓塞(PE)的面积、发展速度、原心肺功能状态、肺血管内皮功能及神经体液反应等。轻者2～3个肺段可无任何症状，重者15～16个肺段可发生休克或猝死。病情的轻重直接关系到患者的预后和治疗策略的选择，因此，近年十分重视急性肺栓塞的危险分层。以下就其有关内容做一简要介绍。     

急性肺栓塞患者危险分层的生物学指标

目的:通过检测急性肺栓塞(APE)患者血浆中肌钙蛋白I(cTnI)及脑钠肽(BNP)的浓度,探讨联合检测cTnI和BNP对APE患者进行危险分层及预后判断的临床意义。方法:根据血浆cTnI和BNP水平将65例APE患者分为3组,Group1组(15例):cTnI<0.1μg/L且BNP<100ng/L;Group2组(30例):cTnI≥0.1μg/L或BNP≥100ng/L;Group3组(20例):cTnI≥0.1μg/L且BNP≥100ng/L,分析cTnI和(或)BNP升高对APE患者危险分层与临床预后的关系。结果:Group1组、2组、3组发生临床不良事件分别为0(0%)、7例(23.3%)、11例(55.0%),差异有统计学意义(P<0.01)。65例APE患者中发生右心功能不全组与无右心功能不全组比较PaO2、P(A-a)O2、cTnI、BNP水平差异均有统计学意义(P<0.01)。相关分析显示BNP与cTnI、P(A-a)O2均呈正相关(r分别为0.46,0.49,均P<0.05)。结论:联合检测生物学指标cTnI和BNP在APE患者早期危险分层、指导临床决策及预后判断中具有重要价值。     

急性肺栓塞患者危险分层的生物学指标

急性肺动脉栓塞(APE)临床表现复杂,病死率高.准确地识别高危患者,及时地应用溶栓药物或血管成形术是肺栓塞治疗中极为重要的问题.APE时的生物学指标,包括肌钙蛋白,脑钠肽,尿酸等被认为是除了临床表现、心电图和超声心动之外对APE进行危险分层的重要指标.本文就近年这方面的资料进行了归纳和总结,并探讨联合使用这些指标对APE危险分层的合理方法.     

CT肺动脉栓塞指数与危险分层的相关性分析

目的:探讨急性肺栓塞患者CT肺动脉栓塞指数与危险分层的相关性。方法:纳入72例连续收治的急性肺栓塞患者,均经CT肺动脉造影确诊。按指南对患者进行危险分层并计算CT肺动脉栓塞指数,用Spearman法计算CT肺动脉栓塞指数与急性肺栓塞危险分层的相关系数,用受试者工作特征曲线评估CT肺动脉栓塞指数对每个危险分层的预测效能。结果:在72例急性肺栓塞患者中,低危组32例、中危组31例、高危组9例,三组CT肺动脉栓塞指数分别为(26.2±16.4)%、(52.9±10.6)%和(85.6±5.4)%,CT肺动脉栓塞指数与急性肺栓塞危险分层的相关系数为0.881(P<0.01)。肺栓塞指数对危险分层中的高危组预测效能最高,敏感性为66.7%,特异性为90.5%,曲线下面积达0.929(P<0.01)。结论:急性肺栓塞患者CT肺动脉栓塞指数与危险分层呈显著正相关。     

D-Dimer for risk stratification in patients with acute pulmonary embolism

Background: Risk stratification is currently recommended for the initial management of patients with acute pulmonary embolism (PE). Methods: We performed a meta-analysis of studies in patients with acute PE to assess the prognostic value of elevated D-dimer levels for short-term (within 30 days) and 3-month mortality. The association between D-dimer levels and markers of PE severity was also reviewed. Unrestricted searches were performed using the terms D-dimer and pulmonary embolism. Studies reporting on D-dimer levels and mortality and/or markers of PE severity were included in the review. A random-effects model was used to pool study results, funnel-plot inspection to evaluate publication bias and I squared testing to test for heterogeneity. Results: Five studies (2,885 patients) reported on D-dimer levels and short-term mortality. D-dimer levels above a prognostic cut-off were significantly associated with short-term mortality in the overall population (OR: 2.76; 95% CI: 1.83–4.14; I² = 0%) and in hemodynamically stable patients (three studies, 874 patients; OR: 4.28; 95% CI: 1.88–9.71; I² = 0%). Four studies (1,254 patients) reported on D-dimer levels and 3-month mortality. D-dimer levels above a prognostic cut-off were associated with 3-month mortality (OR: 4.29; 95% IC: 1.70–10.79; I² = 0%). Overall, 14 studies assessed the association between D-dimer and markers of PE severity. An association has been observed between D-dimer levels and the degree of pulmonary artery obstruction. Conclusion: In patients with acute PE elevated D-dimer is associated with increased short-term and 3-month mortality, suggesting the potential of using this test for both diagnosis and risk stratification.     

Risk assessment in acute pulmonary embolism.

We read with great interest the paper by Aujesky et al.,¹validating the prognostic model comprising 11 routinely availableclinical parameters in patients with pulmonary embolism (PE).However, the presented     

Diagnostic imaging and risk stratification of patients with acute pulmonary embolism

Pulmonary embolism (PE) is the third most common acute cardiovascular disease after myocardial infarction and stroke. The prompt diagnosis, risk stratification, and treatment of patients with acute PE can reduce mortality. Multidetector row computed tomography pulmonary angiography (CTPA) is the most common study used to make the diagnosis of acute PE. CTPA may additionally identify right heart dysfunction or alternative diagnoses. There is a growing body of evidence that computed tomography signs of right heart failure predict patients at higher risk of mortality. At the same time, CTPA has about a 6-fold greater whole body effective dose than ventilation-perfusion (V/Q) scintigraphy, and a much higher dose to breast tissue in particular. V/Q scintigraphy should be considered for patients with contraindications to iodinated contrast or for patients with normal chest radiographs, especially young women. Compression ultrasonography of the proximal lower extremities, an imaging study without ionizing radiation, should be considered for patients suspected of acute PE with signs of lower extremity deep venous thrombosis or for patients with negative CTPA or V/Q scan with discordant clinical probability. This article reviews factors affecting the selection of the best imaging test for a particular patient suspected of acute PE, performance characteristics of diagnostic imaging tests, and imaging findings that correlate with higher mortality.     

Plasma copeptin for short term risk stratification in acute pulmonary embolism

Copeptin (COP) was reported to have prognostic value in various cardiovascular diseases. We hypothesized that COP levels reflect the severity of acute pulmonary embolism (PE) and may be useful in prognostic assessment. Plasma COP concentrations were measured on the Kryptor Compact Plus platform (BRAHMS, Hennigsdorf, Germany). The study included 107 consecutive patients with diagnosed acute PE (47 males, 60 females), with median age of 65 years (range 20–88). High risk PE was diagnosed in 3 patients (2.8 %), intermediate risk in 69 (64.5 %), and low risk PE in 35 (32.7 %) patients. Control group included 64 subjects (25 males, 39 females; median age 52.5 year, range 17–87). Four patients (3.7 %) died during 30-day observation. Complicated clinical course (CCC) was experienced by 10 (9.3 %) patients. COP level was higher in PE patients than in controls [11.55 pmol/L (5.16–87.97), and 19.00 pmol/L (5.51–351.90), respectively, p < 0.0001], and reflected PE severity. COP plasma concentration in low risk PE was 14.67 nmol/L (5.51–59.61) and in intermediate/high risk PE 19.84 mol/L (5.64–351.90) p < 0.05. Median COP levels in nonsurvivors was higher than in survivors, 84.6 (28.48–351.9) pmol/L and 18.68 (5.512–210.1) pmol/L, respectively, p = 0.009. Subjects with CCC presented higher COP levels than patients with benign clinical course 53.1 (17.95–351.9) pmol/L and 18.16 (5.51–210.1) pmol/L, respectively, p = 0.001. Log-transformed plasma COP was the significant predictor of CCC, OR 16.5 95 % CI 23.2–111.9, p < 0.001. AUC—for prediction of CCC using plasma COP was 0.811 (95 % CI 0.676–0.927). The COP cut off value of 17.95 nmol/l had sensitivity of 100 %, specificity 49.5 %, positive predictive value of 16.9 % and negative predictive value of 100 %. We conclude that plasma COP levels can be regarded for promising marker of severity of acute PE and show potential in risk stratification of these patients.     

Shock index for outcome and risk stratification in acute pulmonary embolism

IntroductionRisk stratification of patients with acute pulmonary embolism (PE) is crucial in deciding appropriate therapy management. Shock index (SI) is rapidly available and a reliable parameter. We aimed to investigate SI for short term outcome in acute PE.Materials and methodsData of 182 patients with acute PE were analysed retrospectively. SI was defined as heart rate divided by systolic blood pressure. Logistic regression models were calculated to investigate associations between SI and in-hospital-death, myocardial necrosis and presence of right ventricular dysfunction (RVD) respectively. Moreover ROC curves and cut-off values for SI predicting in-hospital death, myocardial necrosis and RVD were computed.Results182 patients (61.5% female, mean age 68.5 ± 15.3 years) with acute PE event were included in the study. 5 patients (2.7%) died an in-hospital death.Logistic regression models revealed an association between SI and respectively in-hospital death (OR 5.854, 95% CI 1.876–18.274, P = 0.00234), myocardial necrosis (OR 5.043, 95% CI 1.362–18.674, P = 0.0154) and RVD (OR 53.539, 95% CI 6.810–420.914, P = 0.000155).ROC analysis for SI predicting in-hospital death, myocardial necrosis and RVD revealed an AUC of 0.806, 0.636 and 0.713 respectively with respectively SI cut-off values of 0.89, 0.75 and 0.54.ConclusionsSI is a significant predictor of in-hospital death, myocardial necrosis and RVD. The effectiveness of SI to predict in-hospital death is high with an optimal cut-off value of 0.89 for differentiation between PE patients with lower and higher risk to die in hospital after acute PE event.     

肺动脉高压对急性肺栓塞中危险分层及预后评估的作用

目的通过超声心动图对急性肺栓塞(APE)患者肺动脉压力进行估测,探讨肺动脉高压在急性肺栓塞患者危险分层及预后评估中的价值。方法收集2010-2014年新疆医科大学第一附属医院确诊急性肺栓塞的患者77例进行回顾性分析,将其分为肺动脉高压组(30 mm Hg)及肺动脉高压正常组(≤30mm Hg),其中肺动脉高压组40例,肺动脉压力正常组37例,对两组间危险因素、危险分层、临床表现、血生化指标、预后进行比较;结果肺动脉高压组与肺动脉压力正常组相比,年龄偏大,危险因素中基础疾病相对较多,P0.05;肺动脉高压与危险分层之间密切相关,P0.01;肺动脉高压的程度与肺栓塞面积相关,P0.05;肺动脉高压组比肺动脉压力正常组NT-pro BNP及D-二聚体水平显著升高,P0.05,而Pa O2和Pa CO2低于肺动脉压正常组,P0.05;心电图改变中肺动脉高压组出现T波倒置及右束支传导阻滞的发生率明显高于肺动脉压正常组,P0.05;肺动脉高压组不良事件的发生率以及临床症状中出现咯血、晕厥的概率明显高于肺动脉压正常组,P0.05;结论肺动脉高压在急性肺栓塞中与年龄、基础疾病、肺栓塞面积有关系,它在急性肺栓塞严重程度、危险分层及预后评估中有一定的价值,可以作为一项有意义的评估指标。     

急性肺栓塞不同危险分层与心电变化的关系

目的探究急性肺栓塞不同危险分层与心电变化的关系。方法选取2016年1月至2019年1月急性肺栓塞患者90例,根据危险分层进行分组。其中,低危组35例,中危组30例,高危组25例。均行心电图及动态心电图检查,心电图观察指标为心率、P波、QRS波群、T波、ST段变化,动态心电图观察指标心率变异性及心律失常。结果高危组窦性心动过速、肺型P波、SⅠQⅢTⅢ、ⅢST段抬高、V1ST段抬高、V1~V4T波倒置发生率均高于低危组,高危组ⅢST段抬高、V1ST段抬高、V1~V4T波倒置发生率高于中危组,差异均有统计学意义(均P<0.05)。高危组心率变异性指标正常RR间期标准差(SDNN)、每5min正常RR间期平均值的标准差SDANN均低于中、低危组,差异有统计学意义(均P<0.05)。高危组患者室性心律失常、室上性心律失常、房室传导阻滞及束支传导阻滞阳性率均高于中危组和低危组,差异均有统计学意义(均P<0.05)。结论急性肺栓塞时心电图改变与危险分层相关。     

NT-proBNP for risk stratification of pulmonary embolism

IntroductionPulmonary embolism (PE) is an entity with high mortality and morbidity, in which risk stratification for adverse events is essential. N-terminal brain natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP), a right ventricular dysfunction marker, may be useful in assessing the short-term prognosis of patients with PE.AimsTo characterize a sample of patients hospitalized with PE according to NT-proBNP level at hospital admission and to assess the impact of this biomarker on short-term evolution.MethodsWe performed a retrospective analysis of consecutive patients admitted with PE over a period of 3.5 years. Based on the median NT-proBNP at hospital admission, patients were divided into two groups (Group 1: NT-proBNP < median and Group 2: NT-proBNP ≥ median). The two groups were compared in terms of demographic characteristics, personal history, clinical presentation, laboratory, electrocardiographic and echocardiographic data, drug therapy, in-hospital course (catecholamine support, invasive ventilation and in-hospital death and the combined endpoint of these events) and 30-day all-cause mortality. A receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve was constructed to determine the discriminatory power and cut-off value of NT-proBNP for 30-day all-cause mortality.ResultsNinety-one patients, mean age 69 ± 16.4 years (51.6% aged ≥75 years), 53.8% male, were analyzed. Of the total sample, 41.8% had no etiological or predisposing factors for PE and most (84.6%) were stratified as intermediate-risk PE. Median NT-proBNP was 2440 pg/ml. Patients in Group 2 were significantly older (74.8 ± 13.2 vs. 62.8 ± 17.2 years, p = 0.003) and more had a history of heart failure (35.5% vs. 3.3%, p = 0.002) and chronic kidney disease (32.3% vs. 6.7%, p = 0.012). They had more tachypnea on initial clinical evaluation (74.2% vs. 44.8, p = 0.02), less chest pain (16.1% vs. 46.7%, p = 0.01) and higher creatininemia (1.7 ± 0.9 vs. 1.1 ± 0.5 mg/dl, p = 0.004). Group 2 also more frequently had right chamber dilatation (85.7% vs. 56.7%, p = 0.015) and lower left ventricular ejection fraction (56.4 ± 17.6% vs. 66.2 ± 13.5%, p = 0.036) on echocardiography. There were no significant differences in drug therapy between the two groups. Regarding the studied endpoints, Group 2 patients needed more catecholamine support (25.8% vs. 6.7%, p = 0.044), had higher in-hospital mortality (16.1% vs. 0.0%, p = 0.022) and more frequently had the combined endpoint (32.3% vs. 10.0%, p = 0.034). All-cause mortality at 30 days was seen only in Group 2 patients (24.1% vs. 0.0%, p = 0.034). By ROC curve analysis, NT-proBNP had excellent discriminatory power for this event, with an area under the curve of 0.848. The best NT-proBNP cut-off value was 4740 pg/ml.ConclusionElevated NT-proBNP levels identified PE patients with worse short-term prognosis, and showed excellent power to predict 30-day all-cause mortality. The results of this study may have important clinical implications. The inclusion of NT-proBNP measurement in the initial evaluation of patients with PE can add valuable prognostic information.     

Risk factors for pulmonary embolism in acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

<正>Objective To study the risk factors for acute pulmonary embolism(PE)in patients with acute exacerbationof chronic obstructive pulmonary disease(AECOPD).Methods From November 2009 to May 2014,522 patients[aged 42-93 years,mean(72±9)]with AECOPD received CT pulmonary angiography(CTPA)in the     

心电图及心脏超声在急性肺栓塞诊断及危险分层中的意义

目的 分析心电图及心脏超声在急性肺栓塞(APE)诊断及危险分层中的意义。方法 选择2018年1月至2021年1月对我院经肺动脉造影(CTA)确诊的肺栓塞患者120例,其中低危34例,中危70例,高危16例,根据危险分层及临床治疗需要分为中高风险组86例,低风险组34例。分析两组心电图及心脏超声。结果 中高风险组与低风险组性别比例、年龄等基线资料无统计学差异(P>0.05)。心电图显示：中高风险与低风险组间比较,心电图异常的发生率分别为窦性心动过速31例(36.05%)、3例(8.82%),房性心律失常13例(15.12%),肺性P波1例(1.16%),电轴右偏9例(10.47%)、3例(8.82%),右束支阻滞11例(12.79%)、3例(8.82%),S_ⅠQ_ⅢT_Ⅲ 24例(27.91%),肢体导联低电压7例(8.14%),胸前导联T波倒置15例(17.44%)。中高风险组窦性心动过速及房性心律失常的发生率较低风险组显著升高(P<0.05);心脏超声：中高风险与低风险组间比较,右房内径(38.34±6.52、32.44±4.31)mm,右室内径(21.66±4.35、...