胫骨高位截骨治疗膝关节骨性关节炎

目的：总结外侧闭合楔形胫骨高位截骨术（high tibial osteotomy，HTO）治疗膝关节单间室骨性关节炎引起的关节疼痛临床应用结果。方法：应用外侧闭合楔形HTO治疗9例（男3例，女6例）伴内翻畸形的膝关节单间室骨性关节炎。年龄52～58岁，平均56岁。术中显露胫腓关节近侧，切开前侧关节囊，用骨锯或骨刀去除外侧楔形骨块，闭合截骨处缺损后用“U”形钉固定。结果：手术顺利，无手术并发症，经2-5、5年（平均3．5年）随访，按膝关节骨性关节炎疗效评定标准：优5例，良好3例，尚可1例。结论：外侧闲合楔形HTO是治疗膝关节单间室骨性关节炎引起关节疼痛的有效手术方法，但不适用于年龄过大的患者（〉60岁）。     

股骨远端内侧闭合楔形截骨矫正中青年膝外翻

[目的]探讨股骨远端内侧闭合楔形截骨术结合Tomofix锁定钢板治疗中青年膝关节外翻畸形并分析临床疗效。[方法]回顾分析2009年5月~2013年6月,采用股骨远端内侧闭合楔形截骨、Tomofix锁定钢板固定治疗28例(34膝)膝关节外翻畸形患者,分别观察术前和术后KOOS(Knee injury and osteoarthritis outcome score)评分、主观满意指数(Satisfaction Index,SI)、股胫角度改变及膝关节活动度,综合评价该手术方法对膝关节外翻畸形的治疗效果。[结果]所有患者均获随访,随访时间(35.7±11.13)个月(24~72个月)。所有患者X线片显示截骨部位全部获得骨性愈合。与术前相比,KOSS各项评分均显著提高(P0.01),膝关节外翻畸形得到有效矫正(矫正范围:15.1°±3.7°,P0.01),主观满意指数达到(84%±9%),膝关节活动良好。[结论]股骨远端内侧闭合楔形截骨术矫正膝关节外翻畸形可取得较理想的治疗效果,值得推广应用。     

股骨远端外侧开放楔形截骨与内侧闭合楔形截骨治疗膝外翻的疗效比较

目的对比分析股骨远端外侧开放楔形截骨术与内侧闭合楔形截骨术治疗膝关节外翻畸形临床疗效及优缺点。方法笔者自2009-05—2014-06采用股骨远端内翻截骨术+Tomofix股骨远端锁定钢板内固定治疗50例(61膝)膝外翻畸形,分为观察组(采用股骨远端外侧开放楔形截骨术)和对照组(采用内侧闭合楔形截骨术治疗)。比较2组膝关节损伤与骨关节炎评分(KOOS)、主观满意度指数、股胫角度、膝关节活动度、骨折愈合时间、手术并发症等指标,综合评价该手术方法对膝关节外翻畸形的治疗效果。结果 1例失访,其余49例获得平均35.1(24~72)个月随访。所有截骨部位全部获得骨性愈合。组内KOOS评分显示术后膝关节结构和功能均获得显著改善,差异有统计学意义(P0.01),但2组间比较差异无统计学意义(P0.05)。观察组矫正度数(16.15±3.28)°,对照组矫正度数(15.06±3.65)°,2组间比较差异无统计学意义(P0.05)。膝关节活动度、主观满意指数组间和组内比较均无统计学意义(P0.05)。观察组骨折愈合时间比对照组慢,差异有统计学意义(P0.01)。结论股骨远端外侧开放楔形截骨术与内侧闭合楔形截骨术矫正膝关节外翻畸形均可取得较理想的治疗效果,内侧闭合楔形截骨骨折愈合较快,但外侧开放楔形截骨术骨量丢失少、手术操作简单,值得推广应用。     

关节镜清理联合股骨远端闭合截骨术治疗膝外翻并骨性关节炎的疗效观察

目的观察关节镜下清理联合股骨远端内侧闭合楔形截骨术治疗膝外翻并骨性关节炎的临床疗效。方法回顾性分析自2015-01—2017-05采用关节镜清理联合股骨远端内侧闭合楔形截骨术治疗的22例膝外翻并骨性关节炎。比较术前与术后胫股角、负重力线比值、股骨远端外侧角、疼痛VAS评分与膝关节HSS评分。结果 22例术后均获得2年以上随访,随访时间平均35.2 (24~52)个月。术后2年取内固定物时关节镜下二次探查所有患者外侧间室磨损软骨Outbridge分级由Ⅳ级改善为Ⅲ级。术后1年股胫角、负重力线比值、股骨远端外侧角较术前明显改善,差异有统计学意义(P <0.05)。术后1年、2年疼痛VAS评分、膝关节HSS评分较术前明显改善,差异有统计学意义(P <0.05),而术后1年与术后2年比较差异无统计学意义(P>0.05)。结论股骨远端内侧闭合楔形截骨术是膝外翻并骨性关节炎患者理想的保膝治疗手段,可获得较为满意的中期临床效果,有利于膝关节外侧间室软骨修复。     

胫骨内侧高位楔形截骨治疗膝关节骨性关节炎

目的　探讨胫骨内侧高位楔形截骨治疗伴有膝内翻畸形的膝关节骨性关节炎的疗效。方法　对 1996年 7月～ 1999年 9月 ,采用胫骨内侧高位楔形截骨结合髂骨植骨钢板内固定术治疗 19例 (2 6膝 )膝关节骨性关节炎伴膝内翻畸形 ,病程 1～ 2 4年 ,平均 6 .3年 ,按 Ahlback分类 度 10膝 , 度 9膝 , 度 6膝 , 度 1膝。患者术前、术后 8周和术后 2年进行患肢全长 X线片检查 ,测量胫股角、胫骨角、股骨角、胫股关节面切线夹角及胫股内侧关节间距大小。按膝关节功能评定标准 ,评定术后膝关节功能恢复情况。　结果　 19例 (2 6膝 )术后获随访 2 4～ 4 5个月 ;术后 2年随访膝关节功能自 (4 8.6± 16 .6 )分增至 (81.7± 14 .8)分 ,胫股内侧关节间距自 (2 .2± 1.6 ) mm增至 (4 .9± 1.5 ) mm,胫股关节面切线夹角自 7.4°± 3.1°减少至 1.7°± 3.1°。植骨愈合满意 ,无膝内翻复发。术中出现关节内骨折 1例 ;皮肤感染 2例。结论　胫骨内侧高位楔形截骨结合植骨钢板内固定 ,可作为治疗伴有膝内翻畸形的膝关节骨性关节炎的有效方法之一。     

3D个性化导板在胫骨闭合性截骨中的应用1例报告北大核心CSCD

胫骨高位截骨术(high tibial osteotomy,HTO)适用于胫股关节单侧间室骨关节炎的较年轻患者,通过调整下肢的力线,减轻受影响的关节间室的负荷,达到缓解关节疼痛的效果[1]。HTO和关节置换术都可以治疗膝关节骨关节炎,由于手术本身对关节内没有影响,对于较年轻的骨性关节炎患者,HTO具有保留活动度和关节功能的优点[1,2]。2021年9月我们对1例胫骨外侧平台骨折术后膝骨性关节炎、膝外翻患者在闭合式楔形胫骨截骨术中使用3D个性化手术器械(patient specific instrumentation,PSI)矫正外翻对线不良,报道如下。     

胫骨高位内外侧截骨治疗膝关节骨性关节炎临床研究

目的比较胫骨内外侧高位截骨治疗膝关节骨性关节炎的疗效,探讨影响疗效的因素。方法采用胫骨内外侧高位截骨术治疗膝关节骨性关节炎内翻畸形58例（62膝）。分别对两种术式进行综合评分。结果随访时间：内侧组平均2．1年,外侧组3．6年。采用HSS标准,内侧组优良率为97％,外侧组83．2％,经x^2检验,差异无显著性,但手术时间、膝关节术后活动改善度和术后并发症分别经x^2检验和t检验,差异有显著性。结论胫骨高位内侧截骨治疗膝关节骨性关节炎内翻畸形有手术难度小、便于膝部其他术式的联合、术后可早期活动、并发症发生率低等优点。     

胫骨高位截骨治疗膝关节骨性关节炎临床疗效分析

目的探讨闭合性与开放性胫骨高位楔形截骨术治疗膝关节单间室骨性关节炎的疗效。方法笔者自1998-03—2008-05采用闭合性胫骨高位楔形截骨(CWHTO)治疗膝关节骨性关节炎并内翻畸形90例(95膝),与自2007-08—2012-07采用开放性胫骨高位楔形截骨(OWHTO)治疗的膝关节内侧间室骨性关节炎并膝内翻27例(30膝)进行比较。采用膝关节HSS评分、VAS评分对术后疗效进行评价,下肢力线通过手术前后下肢全长X线片胫股角(FTA)、下肢负重线比率(WBL)评估。结果 OWHTO组获得平均60(36~96)个月随访。OWHTO组术后1周内屈曲可达90°,术后膝关节活动度、VAS评分、HHS评分、FTA及WBL均优于术前,差异均有统计学意义(P0.05)。CWHTO组获得平均144(80~204)个月随访。CWHTO组患者长腿管型石膏管型外固定4周后,去除石膏固定行免负重关节功能锻炼2周,骨折愈合后逐渐负重行关节功能锻炼。术后膝关节活动度、VAS评分、HSS评分、FTA、WBL均优于术前,差异均有统计学意义(P0.05)。所有患者无感染、截骨不愈合或延迟愈合发生,无腓总神经神经损伤、股四头肌力量及髌骨轨迹改变,无下肢短缩等发生,但行CWHTO截骨患者有下肢静脉血栓形成、有平台骨折发生。结论 2种截骨均能通过恢复下肢力线,达到缓解关节疼痛、改善关节功能,对于早期单间室骨性关节炎有较好疗效,开放楔形截骨更有优势。     

3D打印截骨导板辅助截骨矫形与单髁置换术治疗股骨畸形愈合并膝内侧骨性关节炎

目的观察3D打印截骨导板辅助截骨矫形与单髁置换术治疗股骨畸形愈合并膝关节内侧间室骨性关节炎的临床疗效。方法回顾性分析自2014-10—2019-09诊治的9例股骨畸形愈合并膝关节内侧间室骨性关节炎,先采用3D打印截骨导板辅助股骨畸形截骨矫形,然后一期行单髁置换术。结果 9例均获得随访,随访时间平均13.6(12～18)个月。术后所有患者膝关节内侧疼痛明显减轻,膝关节活动度满意,无下肢肌肉萎缩。术后3个月复查X线片显示股骨截骨处均骨愈合,下肢力线矫正精确,单髁假体位置良好且无脱位迹象。术后6个月疼痛VAS评分1～2(1.44±0.53)分,HSS评分83～90(85.44±2.19)分。术后12个月KSS临床评分(88.33±2.87)分,KSS功能评分(86.66±3.54)分,OKS评分(17.33±1.50)分,WOMAC评分(20.56±1.94)分。结论 3D打印截骨导板辅助一期截骨矫形与单髁置换术治疗股骨畸形愈合并膝关节内侧间室骨性关节炎是可行的,术后下肢力线矫正精确,膝关节疼痛明显减轻,患者满意度高。     

胫骨高位截骨术的研究进展

胫骨高位截骨术是通过胫骨近端截骨,纠正下肢力线,使膝关节负重载荷,从退变的内侧间室转移至正常的外侧间室,从而改善膝关节生物力学环境和血液循环,使关节炎的进展得到延缓,并促进内侧间室软骨修复,减轻关节疼痛,逐渐恢复关节活动及功能。本文对目前胫骨高位截骨术治疗内侧间室膝关节骨性关节炎进行综述。     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.