Alphavirus vectors for vaccine production and gene therapy

Alphavirus vectors demonstrate high expression of heterologous proteins in a broad range of host cells. Replication-deficient as well as replication-competent variants exist. Systemic delivery of many viral antigens has elicited strong antibody responses in immunized mice and primates, and protection against challenges with lethal viruses was obtained. Similarly, prophylactic vaccination was established against tumor challenges. Attention has been paid to the engineering of improved targeting to immunologically active cells, such as dendritic cells. In the area of gene therapy, intratumoral injections of alphavirus vectors have resulted in potentially promising tumor rejection. Moreover, encapsulation of alphavirus particles into liposomes demonstrated efficient tumor targeting in mice with severe combined immunodeficiency, which permitted the initiation of clinical trials for patients with advanced kidney carcinoma and melanoma.     

Preclinical evaluation of innate immunity to baculovirus gene therapy vectors in whole human blood

Interactions of gene therapy vectors with human blood components upon intravenous administration have a significant effect on vector efficacy and patient safety. Here we describe methods to evaluate these interactions and their effects in whole human blood, using baculovirus vectors as a model. Opsonisation of baculovirus particles by binding of IgM and C3b was demonstrated, which is likely to be the cause of the significant blood cell-associated virus that was detected. Preventing formation of the complement C5b-9 (membrane attack) complex maintained infectivity of baculovirus particles as shown by studying the effects of two specific complement inhibitors, Compstatin and a C5a receptor antagonist. Formation of macroscopic blood clots after 4 h was prevented by both complement inhibitors. Pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines Il-1β, IL-6, IL-8 and TNF-α were produced at variable levels between volunteers and complement inhibitors showed patient-specific effects on cytokine levels. Whilst both complement inhibitors could play a role in protecting patients from aggressive inflammatory reactions, only Compstatin maintained virus infectivity. We conclude that this ex vivo model, used here for the first time with infectious agents, is a valuable tool in evaluating human innate immune responses to gene therapy vectors or to predict the response of individual patients as part of a clinical trial or treatment. The use of complement inhibitors for therapeutic viruses should be considered on a patient-specific basis.     

Porcine adenoviral vectors evade preexisting humoral immunity to adenoviruses and efficiently infect both human and murine cells in culture

Preexisting immunity against human adenoviruses (HAd) limits the efficiency of transduction of HAd vectors in humans. In addition, development of a vector-specific immune response after the first inoculation with a HAd vector further lowers vector uptake following readministration. We investigated the usefulness of porcine adenovirus serotype 3 (PAd3)-based vectors as a supplement to HAd vectors. Here we demonstrate that preexisting HAd-specific neutralizing antibodies in humans do not cross-neutralize PAd3. In order to generate E1A-deleted PAd3 vectors, an E1-complementing cell line of porcine origin was produced. E1A-deleted PAd3 vector expressing green fluorescent protein; GFP (PAd-GFP) and E1-deleted HAd5 vector expressing GFP (HAd-GFP) transduced human cell lines with comparable efficiencies. Both of these vectors efficiently transduced murine MT1A2 breast cancer cell line, while PAd-GFP transduced murine NIH 3T3 fibroblast cell line significantly better (P < 0.05) than HAd-GFP. These results suggest that PAd3 vectors would be promising supplement to HAd vectors as a delivery vehicle for recombinant vaccines and gene therapy applications.     

用于神经系统基因治疗的病毒载体

近几年来 ,基因治疗 ( gene therapy)研究进展迅速。基因治疗是以基因转移方法将具有表达功能的基因导入到相关的细胞和组织中 ,使转录或翻译的产物发挥治疗作用的一种治疗方法。进行基因治疗时应根据宿主细胞病变基因表达水平的异常状况 ,而采取不同的基因治疗策略。目的是提高或补足表达水平低下的基因 ,降低表达水平过高的基因 ,或将在正常状况下不存在、不表达的基因进行封闭或将之破坏。目前基因治疗有四种基本策略 :基因置换 ( genereplacement)、基因修正 ( gene correction)、基因修饰 ( geneaugmentation)和基因失活 ( gene inacti…     

Nonviral vectors for cancer gene therapy: prospects for integrating vectors and combination therapies

Gene therapy has the potential to improve the clinical outcome of many cancers by transferring therapeutic genes into tumor cells or normal host tissue. Gene transfer into tumor cells or tumor-associated stroma is being employed to induce tumor cell death, stimulate anti-tumor immune response, inhibit angiogenesis, and control tumor cell growth. Viral vectors have been used to achieve this proof of principle in animal models and, in select cases, in human clinical trials. Nevertheless, there has been considerable interest in developing nonviral vectors for cancer gene therapy. Nonviral vectors are simpler, more amenable to large-scale manufacture, and potentially safer for clinical use. Nonviral vectors were once limited by low gene transfer efficiency and transient or steadily declining gene expression. However, recent improvements in plasmid-based vectors and delivery methods are showing promise in circumventing these obstacles. This article reviews the current status of nonviral cancer gene therapy, with an emphasis on combination strategies, long-term gene transfer using transposons and bacteriophage integrases, and future directions.     

人B7H4启动子荧光素酶报告基因载体的构建及活性分析

为构建人B7H4基因启动子荧光素酶报告基因载体,以人外周血单个核细胞基因组DNA为模板,PCR扩增3条不同长度人B7H4启动子序列,并插入PGL3-Basic荧光素酶报告基因载体中;待测序验证后,将3个重组质粒及pRL-TK内参质粒分别共转染HEK-293T细胞,采用双荧光素酶报告基因系统检测其启动子活性。测序结果显示构建的3个人B7H4基因启动子重组载体序列正确;重组载体转染HEK-293T细胞,经双荧光素酶报告基因检测确定重组载体有启动子活性,其中PGL3-hB7H4-0.5kb重组载体的转录活性较高。本研究成功构建了3条含不同长度的B7H4启动子序列的荧光素酶报告基因系统,为后续分析人B7H4启动子的转录调控元件及肿瘤微环境中调控B7H4表达的作用因素等研究奠定了实验基础。     

Mucosal immunity and tolerance: relevance to vaccine development

Summary: The mucosal immune system of mammals consists of an integrated network of lymphoid cells which work in concert with innate host factors to promote host defense. Major mucosal effector immune mechanisms include secretory antibodies, largely of immunoglobulin A (IgA) isotype, cytotoxic T cells, as well as cytokines, chemokines and their receptors. Immunologic unresponsiveness (tolerance) is a key feature of the mucosal immune system, and deliberate vaccination or natural immunization by a mucosal route can effectively induce immune suppression. The diverse compartments located in the aerodigestive and genitourinary tracts and exocrine glands communicate via preferential homing of lymphocytes and antigen-presenting cells. Mucosal administration of antigens may result in the concomitant expression of secretory immunoglobulin A (S-IgA) antibody responses in various mucosal tissues and secretions, and under certain conditions, in the suppression of immune responses. Thus, developing formulations based on efficient delivery of selected anti-gens/tolerogens, cytokines and adjuvants may impact on the design of future vaccines and of specific immunotherapeutic approaches against diseases associated with untoward immune responses, such as autoimmune disorders, allergic reactions, and tissue-damaging inflammatory reactions triggered by persistent microorganisms.     

NLRP1基因启动子区荧光素酶报告载体的构建与鉴定

目的构建人NLRP1(nucleotide-binding,leucine-rich repeat pyrin domain containing protein 1)基因启动子区SNPrs878329位点两种单倍体荧光素酶报告基因载体。方法分别以SNP rs878329的GG和CC基因型的人基因组DNA为模板,用PCR法扩增出包含该位点的长476 bp的NLRP1基因启动子区目的片段,用KpnⅠ/BglⅡ双酶切,切胶回收后分别与同样双酶切的荧光素酶报告基因载体PGL3-promoter相连接,构建pGL3-promoter-G和pGL3-promoter-C两个表达质粒,并测序验证其DNA序列。结果成功构建了人类NLRP1基因启动子SNP rs878329的两种纯合子基因型(GG型和CC型)的荧光素酶报告载体,且测序得以证实。结论成功构建出的荧光素酶报告载体,为研究NLRP1基因启动子SNP rs878329能否调控NLRP1基因表达提供了基本实验条件。     

Viral vectors for cancer gene therapy: viral dissemination and tumor targeting

Cancer gene therapy is the most promising and active field in gene therapy treatment. Although previous experimental and clinical trials have brought forward some exciting cases, in general, the clinical benefits have been limited. A major difference between virus-mediated gene therapy and other therapies is the poor physical diffusibility of viral vectors, which is also one of the major obstacles in cancer gene therapy. As safety is a prerequisite to enhanced viral dissemination, tumor-specific targeting becomes crucial. The present review focuses on questions related to efficient viral dissemination in tumor masses and how to sustain a high level of oncolytic virus targeting of tumor cells only. We will first consider two common reasons for limited virus spread in tumor masses and then discuss strategies for improving the tumor-specific oncolysis of currently used viral vectors and to comment on their advantages and potential problems.     

Tropism-modified adenoviral and adeno-associated viral vectors for gene therapy

One of the most rapidly advancing areas of gene therapy is vector development. For the majority of gene therapy procedures, efficient and selective transduction would provide safe and more effective treatments at optimal vector doses. Advances in vector targeting strategies have been rapid within the field of DNA-based viruses, particularly adenovirus (Ad) and more recently adeno-associated virus (AAV) based vectors. Vector targeting at the level of virus: cell interaction can be achieved using both non-genetic and genetic methodology. Non-genetic approaches typically utilise bispecific antibodies that both neutralise wild-type virus tropism and provide a new cell binding capacity. For genetic targeting strategies, the virus capsid can be engineered to express foreign ligands that target selected receptors in the absence or presence of additional modification to ablate the virus' natural tropism. This review covers technological advances that have led to targeting of Ad and AAV and highlights the potential for these 'designer' viruses for future gene-based therapeutics.     

Induction of protective immunity and neutralizing antibodies to pseudorabies virus by immunization of anti-idiotypic antibodies

Summary Xenogenic anti-idiotypic antibodies (anti-Id) were prepared in rabbits against three murine neutralizing monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) directed to pseudorabies virus glycoproteins. These anti-Id were highly specific to idiotopes on the corresponding MAb molecules. Because the binding of MAb to the corresponding anti-Id was inhibited by the addition of viral envelope protein, these anti-Id seemed to contain a subpopulation of antibodies against the antigen-combining site (paratope) or the region related to the paratope of the MAb molecules. One of the anti-Id to a MAb directed against glycoprotein gp50 induced neutralizing antibodies to PrV. Mice immunized with the anti-Id were protected from lethal infection of PrV.     

HSV-1-derived recombinant and amplicon vectors for gene transfer and gene therapy

Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) is a major human pathogen whose lifestyle is based on a long-term dual interaction with the infected host characterized by the existence of lytic and latent infections. Although in most cell types infection with HSV-1 will induce toxic effects ending in the death of the infected cells, the very deep knowledge we possess on the genetics and molecular biology of HSV-1 has permitted the deletion of most toxic genes and the development of non-pathogenic HSV-1-based vectors for gene transfer. Several unique features of HSV-1 make vectors derived from this virus very appealing for preventive or therapeutic gene transfer. These include (i) the very high transgenic capacity of the virus particle, authorizing to convey very large pieces of foreign DNA to the nucleus of mammalian cells, (ii) the genetic complexity of the virus genome, allowing to generate many different types of attenuated vectors possessing oncolytic activity, and (iii) the ability of HSV-1 vectors to invade and establish lifelong non-toxic latent infections in neurons from sensory ganglia and probably in other neurons as well, from where transgenes can be strongly and long-term expressed. Three different classes of vectors can be derived from HSV-1: replication-competent attenuated vectors, replication-incompetent recombinant vectors, and defective helper-dependent vectors known as amplicons. Each of these different vectors attempts to exploit one or more of the above-mentioned features of HSV-1. In this review we will update the current know-how concerning design, construction, and recent applications, as well as the potential and current limitations of the three different classes of HSV-1-based vectors.     

壳聚糖递送的结核基因疫苗诱导的肺部黏膜免疫及在抗结核免疫保护中的意义

诱导肺局部黏膜免疫对于早期控制结核分枝杆菌(Mycobacterium tuberfulosis)十分关键.在我们过去构建的结核基因疫苗pHSP65pep有效诱导脾脏IFN-γ+Th1细胞应答的基础上,为更好诱导呼吸道和肺局部黏膜免疫,采用天然生物多糖壳聚糖(chitosan)作为黏膜递送介质递送结核基因疫苗.制备壳聚...     

Barriers to systemic application of virus-based vectors in gene therapy: lessons from adenovirus type 5

Currently, virus-based vectors, namely derivatives of the adenovirus, are frequently used in a wide variety of ex vivo or local gene therapeutic applications. However, the efficacy of virus-based vectors in systemic applications is presently still extremely limited. Complex interactions of the various vector types with the patient’s organism hinder successful vector deployment. Exemplary, here we summarize barriers to systemic application of Adenovirus-based vectors leading either to acute toxic effects or rapid vector neutralization and discuss strategies to overcome these barriers aiming to develop more efficient vector types.     

Selective replicating viral vectors : potential for use in cancer gene therapy

Treatment of cancer is limited by toxicity to normal tissue with standard approaches (chemotherapy, surgery and radiotherapy). The use of selective replicating viral vectors may enable the targeting of gene-modified viruses to malignant tissue without toxic effect. Studies of these vectors have demonstrated tumour-selective replication and minimal evidence of replication in normal tissue. The most advanced clinical results reported involve gene-modified adenoviral vectors. Several completed, histologically confirmed responses to local/regional injection have been induced, particularly in recurrent squamous cell carcinoma involving the head and neck region. Dose limiting toxicity above 10(13) viral particles per injection has been observed. Anti-tumour effect is demonstrable in animal models without evidence of significant toxicity when these vectors are used alone or in combination with chemotherapy, radiation therapy or as gene delivery vehicles. Preliminary clinical trials, particularly with E1B-deleted adenoviruses, report evidence of clinical activity in comparison with expected historical responses. Enhancement in replication selectivity to malignant tissue is also demonstrated preclinically and clinically with an E1B-deleted adenovirus utilising a prostate-specific antigen promoter. Other selective replicating viral vectors such as herpes simplex virus and vaccinia virus have also been explored clinically and suggest evidence of activity in patients with cancer. Modifications may one day enable more aggressive use of these new and exciting therapeutics as systemic gene delivery vehicles.     

Antibody and cell-mediated immunity to Streptococcus pneumoniae: implications for vaccine development

It has long been assumed that children develop natural immunity to pneumococci via the acquisition of anticapsular antibodies, which confers serotype-specific immunity to the organism. This view has been further reinforced by the recent success of capsular polysaccharide conjugate vaccines in children in reducing colonization and disease caused by vaccine-type strains. Less clear, however, is whether this mechanism is responsible for the age-related gradual increased resistance to pneumococcal carriage and disease. Recent epidemiologic and experimental evidence point to the possibility that another mechanism may be involved. Here, an alternative possibility is presented, whereby it is proposed that acquired immunity to this common human pathogen is derived not only from natural acquisition of antibodies (capsular and noncapsular) that provides protection against invasive disease but also from the development of pneumococcus-specific CD4+ T_H17 cells that reduces the duration of carriage and may also impact mucosal disease. This review focuses on the experimental and clinical evidence in support of this hypothesis. The implications for future vaccine development against Streptococcus pneumoniae are also discussed.     

Genomic context vectors and artificial chromosomes for cystic fibrosis gene therapy

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is caused by mutations of the CF transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) gene, which encodes a cAMP dependent chloride channel whose expression is finely tuned in space and time. Gene therapy approaches to CF lung disease have demonstrated partial efficacy and short-lived CFTR expression in the airways. Drawbacks in the use of classical gene transfer vectors include immune response to viral proteins or to unmethylated CpG motifs contained in bacterially-derived vector DNA, and shut-off of viral promoters. These limitations could be overcome by providing stable maintenance and expression of the CFTR gene inside the defective cells. This strategy makes use of large fragments of DNA of various sizes containing the CFTR transgene and its relevant regulatory regions, (genomic context vectors [GCVs], reaching ultimate complexity in the form of an artificial chromosome [AC]) as vector for the transgene. Appropriate regulation in space and time would be achieved by the presence of the endogenous promoter and other control elements, while retention in daughter cells could be ensured by the presence of sequences which guarantee episomal replication. In this review, we describe recent advances in GCVs and ACs and the technology underlying their construction. These vectors have been shown to be suitable for delivery and expression of therapeutically relevant genes, including CFTR. The major issue which now limits their routine use is delivery inefficiency. Once this issue is resolved, we will be closer to achieving the goal of regulated gene therapy for CF.