Subclavian Vein Hemodialysis Catheters: Advantages and Disadvantages

Abstract: The pros and cons of subclavian vein hemodialysis catheters are reviewed. The subclavian vein catheter offers rapid and adequate vascular access. Other advantages are preservation of patient mobility and the ease with which the dressing can be secured. In contrast, subclavian vein stenosis has recently been identified as an important long-term complication of subclavian vein catheters that seriously compromises the creation and long-term viability of later ipsilateral arteriovenous fistulas. For this reason, we recommend restricting use of the subclavian hemodialysis catheter for acute situations and preferential use of internal jugular catheters for more chronic approaches because they better preserve venous integrity.     

锁骨下静脉置管在血液透析中应用分析

目的：探讨临时锁骨下静脉置管的安全性。方法：回顾分析1992年1月～2010年10月,经锁骨下静脉置管、进行血液透析之尿毒症患者的导管相关性并发症的发生率。结果：927例患者共行965次临时锁骨下静脉置管。一次置管成功率95.1%,换位后100%成功。导管留置共39860导管天,平均（45±12.57）d。发生急性并发症11例次,发生率1.14%。出口感染67例次,菌血症73例次,发生率各为1.68次及1.83次/1000导管天;无导管隧道感染;症状性深静脉梗阻42例次,发生率4.35%。结论：锁骨下静脉置管可替代颈内静脉作为血液透析临时通路,今后还需要大样本多中心临床对照研究来证实。     

Subclavian vein stenosis and thrombosis: a potential serious complication in chronic hemodialysis patients

One hundred ninety patients, 61 with acute renal failure and 129 with chronic renal failure, underwent hemodialysis using a total of 302 subclavian vein catheters. Local hematomas and sepsis (seven events) were the only acute complications. Subclavian vein stenosis and/or thrombosis had occurred and were shown in five of 44 patients who had arteriovenous access created distal to the venous outlet obstruction, resulting in the loss of three of five of these accesses. In view of the fact that subclavian vein stenosis or occlusion is not associated with any clinical findings and we were unable to identify any predisposing factors associated with the use of the catheters, all patients who have had previous subclavian vein catheters probably should be evaluated to determine the patency of the subclavian vein before creation of a permanent access in that arm.     

Complications in large-bore catheters for extracorporeal detoxification methods

Catheters for large vessels have become essential tools for the management of hospitalized or chronically ill patients requiring intensive medical treatments such as extracorporeal detoxification procedures. The increased use of such devices has been accompanied by a corresponding increase in complications, such as infection, sepsis, and thrombosis. In two retrospective studies, the first (1979-1990) with 1672 patients and 2626 large-bore catheters and the second (1996-2001) with 182 patients and 332 acute catheters, the frequency of infections, thrombosis, bleeding, and other side-effects were investigated. All complications and side-effects are presented. In total, the complication rate was in the first study 27.7% (internal jugular vein 23.8% in 2105 catheters, subclavian vein 43.5% in 521 catheters) and in the second study 32.2% (internal jugular vein 20% in 231 catheters, subclavian vein 60.6% in 94 catheters, femoral vein 57.1% in 7 catheters). The majority of complications were puncture not possible, puncture of the artery abscess, septicemia, bleeding, thrombosis, and faults in catheter material. To minimize these complication rates the handling of the inserted catheters before, during, and after the hemodialysis or apheresis treatment is minimized.     

Temporary Vascular Access in British Hemodialysis Units

A questionnaire, designed to determine the current habits of British nephrologists regarding temporary vascular access for hemodialysis, was sent to 62 renal units. Forty-six (74%) completed questionnaires were returned. Cannulation of the subclavian vein with a single-lumen catheter is the most popular technique. There is only limited use of double- or dual-lumen catheters in the United Kingdom. Previously unreported fatal complications of subclavian hemodialysis catheters are described.     

Late symptomatic venous stenosis in three hemodialysis patients without previous central venous catheters

It is well known that catheters placed in the subclavian or internal jugular veins may develop stenosis in the vein in which the catheter lies. Because the arteriovenous fistula (AVF) relies on good venous outflow, patients with ipsilateral central venous stenosis are subject to the malfunctioning of AVF. Until now, no data were published on patients showing central vein stenosis (CVS) without a previous central venous catheter (CVC) or a pacemaker. In this article, we report on 3 hemodialysis patients manifesting CVS ipslateral to AVF. None of these patients previously had undergone CVC. The stenosis observed had characteristics and symptoms similar to those observed in stenoses consequent to CVC. We concluded that CVS also may occur in subclavian or axillary veins proximal to a working AVF in hemodialysis patients who have never had a CVC and in the absence of compressive phenomena.     

Massive upper extremity edema following vascular access surgery

We recently treated three patients with chronic renal failure who required subclavian vein cannulation with Uldall catheters following thrombosis of their arteriovenous fistulae. New arteriovenous fistulae were created in each patient following removal of the Uldall catheters. The patients were seen subsequently with massive, painful edema in the ipsilateral upper extremities from one to 10 weeks following creation of the arteriovenous fistulae. Radiographic studies documented stenosis or occlusion of the ipsilateral proximal subclavian vein. The arteriovenous fistula was ultimately ligated in each patient, which promptly resolved the pain and edema. Because subclavian vein thrombosis following temporary hemodialysis through an indwelling catheter is frequently asymptomatic until an arteriovenous fistula is constructed, venography should be considered in patients requiring upper extremity vascular access procedures. Demonstration of subclavian vein stenosis or occlusion would either preclude use of the upper extremity for an arteriovenous fistula or would require a concomitant procedure to relieve the venous obstruction.     

Use of a silicone catheter with a Dacron cuff for dialysis short-term vascular access

Polyurethane and Teflon subclavian vein catheters have been widely used for temporary vascular access for hemodialysis, but their use has been associated with a significant complication rate. A silicone dual-lumen catheter with a Dacron cuff placed in the internal jugular or subclavian vein was evaluated as a means of obtaining short-term vascular access. Sixty-two catheters in 54 patients provided a cumulative experience of 206 patient-months. Blood flow rates greater than or equal to 200 mL/min were achieved, with a mean recirculation of 2.1%. Catheter function was better with placement on the right side. Exit-site infections developed in nine patients, for a rate of 5.3 episodes per 100 patient-months; all resolved with antibiotics. Catheter-related bacteremia occurred in one patient, for a rate of 0.49 episodes per 100 patient-months, a rate much lower than rates reported for polyurethane and Teflon catheters. Clotting occurred in 24.5% of catheters, and thrombolytic therapy was always successful in restoring function. Because of the lower rate of complications, the silicone dual-lumen catheter with a Dacron cuff provides a safer alternative for short-term hemodialysis vascular access than the Teflon and polyurethane catheters.     

A Prospective Analysis of the Cephalic Vein Cutdown Approach for Chronic Indwelling Central Venous Access in 100 Consecutive Cancer Patients

Background: Chronic indwelling central venous access devices (CICVAD) generally are placed by the percutaneous subclavian vein approach. The cephalic vein cutdown approach is used only infrequently. Although the technique has been well described, few prospective data are available on the cephalic vein cutdown approach.Methods: From September 9, 1998, to July 20, 1999, the cephalic vein cutdown approach was attempted in 100 consecutive cancer patients taken to the operating room with the intention of placing CICVAD. Median patient age was 54.5 years (range 18–88), with 46 men and 54 women. Twenty-five patients had gastrointestinal malignancies, 17 had breast cancer, 15 had lymphoma, 13 had lung cancer, 12 had leukemia, 5 had multiple myeloma, and 13 had other malignancies. Patients were followed prospectively for immediate and long-term outcome.Results: CICVAD placement via the cephalic vein cutdown approach was successful in 82 patients; the remaining 18 patients required conversion to a percutaneous subclavian vein approach. The reasons for inability to place CICVAD via cephalic vein cutdown approach were a cephalic vein that was too small (10 patients), an absent cephalic vein (7 patients), and inability to traverse the angle of insertion of the cephalic vein into the subclavian vein (1 patient). There were 56 subcutaneous ports and 26 tunneled catheters. Median operating time was 44 minutes (range, 26–79 minutes). No postoperative pneumothorax occurred. Median catheter duration was 198 days (range, 0–513 days). Long-term complications included catheter-related bacteremia (6%), site infection (2%), deep venous thrombosis (5%), port pocket hematoma (1%), and superior vena cava stricture (1%). Thirty-seven percent of patients have died since CICVAD placement. Twenty-nine percent of the CICVADs have been removed.Conclusions: The cephalic vein cutdown approach was successful in 82% of patients. This approach is a safe and useful alternative to the percutaneous subclavian vein approach.Presented at the 53rd Annual Meeting of the Society of Surgical Oncology, March 16–19, 2000, New Orleans, Louisiana     

Complications related to subclavian catheters for hemodialysis. Report and review

Personal experience with subclavian vein cannulations for hemodialysis are given, and the pertinent literature on the subject is reviewed. Two hundred subclavian dialysis catheters were placed in 148 patients who kept them in place for a total of 2,798 days. Immediate complications were two pneumothoraxes and two hemothoraxes due to subclavian artery puncture. Seventeen cases of bacteremia were related to subclavian catheter infections. In 1 case, a complication of sepsis was a vertebral osteomyelitis. Clinical evidences of subclavian vein thrombosis occurred in 5 cases. Life-threatening complications were met in 2 cases: 1 with pericardial tamponade due to right atrium perforation and 1 with mediastinal hematoma and right hemothorax due to superior vena cava perforation. Review of the literature indicates that pneumothoraxes and/or hemothoraxes occurred in 1.7% of the catheter insertions and that sepsis related to subclavian dialysis catheters occurred in 8.9% of the patients. As systematically investigated subclavian vein thrombosis involved at least 50% of the patients. Our 2 personal cases of life-threatening complications and 14 similar cases of the literature were analyzed: left subclavian catheters were associated with superior vena cava perforation with right hemothorax or mediastinal hematoma, while right subclavian catheters gave atrial perforation with pericardial tamponade. Death occurred in 3 of 16 cases, and emergency surgery was required in 5 of 16 cases. Taking into account all these complications, recommendations are made for the use of subclavian dialysis catheters.     

Subclavian catheter-related infection is a major risk factor for the late development of subclavian vein stenosis

Although subclavian vein stenosis is a well-known complicationof haemodialysis subclavian catheters, little is known aboutits causes. Catheter-related infection is the most common complicationof this technique, but its role in the genesis of late subclavianstenosis has not been established. We retrospectively analysed80 subclavian catheterizations in a total of 54 chronic haemodialysispatients from a single center. Sixteen catheters had to be removedbecause of a well documented catheter-related infection: threecatheter-related sepsis (2 with ipsilateral phlebitis), sevenisolated fever with catheter tip colonization which disappearedafter catheter removal, and six exit-site discharge with positiveculture. For comparison we matched 14 contemporaneous catheterswhich were electively removed without evidence of infectionand with a negative culture of the catheter tip. A venogramof the ipsilateral arm was performed in all the cases aftermore than 6 months of catheter removal. Both groups were remarkablysimilar with respect to age, sex, side of insertion, numberof inserted catheters, time of indwelling, and time elapsedfrom removal to venography. Definite subclavian stenosis wasthree times more common among patients with previous catheter-relatedinfection (75% versus 28%; P<0.01). Interestingly, both patientswith ipsilateral phlebitis showed total occlusion of the subclavianvein. Although all diabetic patients of the study (n=6) suffereda catheter-related infection, the incidence of late subclavianstenosis was not more common than in non-diabetic infected patients. In summary, subclavian haemodialysis catheter-related infectionis a major risk factor for the development of late subclavianvein stenosis. Strict aseptic techniques and early removal ofthe catheter when infection is suspected, are important preventivemeasures.     

Subclavian vein thrombosis: a frequent complication of subclavian vein cannulation for hemodialysis

Subclavian vein cannulation was suggested as a temporary vascular access for hemodialysis since one of its advantages was considered to be no damage to blood vessels. As we observed six patients with symptomatic subclavian vein thrombosis among 148 patients having received subclavian vein cannulation for hemodialysis, we systematically performed subclavian venogram in 42 asymptomatic patients selected on the basis of a history of previous subclavian vein cannulation. Venograms were performed 15.7 +/- 8.9 months after the removal of the last catheter. Eight patients (19%) had complete thrombosis or severe stenosis of the subclavian vein while six patients (14%) had minimal luminal defects. Considering together the 48 patients, the group with thrombosis or severe stenosis (group 1, n = 14) was compared with the group with minimal defects or normal venograms (group 2, n = 34). In group 1, as compared with group 2, there were more female (64% vs 32%, p = 0.02), more cannulations per vein (1.87 +/- 0.35 vs 1.32 +/- 0.08, p less than 0.05) and more cumulative days of cannulation per vein (35.1 +/- 7.9 vs 24.4 +/- 1.1, p less than 0.001). No difference between the two groups was seen for the number of catheter infections, the number of catheters with poor flow or obstruction, the coagulation screening of the patients or the time-length between the removal of the last catheter and the venogram study. Two of the initially asymptomatic patients developed later on clinical problems related to the subclavian vein thrombosis. We conclude that the subclavian vein cannulation leads to significant damages of the vessels, excluding a whole arm, for future vascular access in some patients.     

Late vascular complications of the subclavian dialysis catheter

The use of the subclavian dialysis catheter is generally regarded as free of long-term sequelae. However, we observed the occurrence of central vein stenosis in three hemodialysis patients following the use of the subclavian dialysis catheter to provide temporary access. In each case, the stenosis became clinically apparent months after the establishment of an ipsilateral arteriovenous fistula that became compromised by the stenosis. The stenoses may be amenable to dilatation by balloon angioplasty. Although the factors predisposing to this complication and its incidence are unknown, the potential for compromising access sites in the ipsilateral arm warrants awareness that use of subclavian dialysis catheters may be associated with significant long-term sequelae.     

股静脉与颈内静脉半永久双腔导管在血液透析中的应用

目的 :比较股静脉与颈内静脉半永久双腔导管在血液透析中的使用情况。方法 :采用前瞻性研究 ,将4 9例不能建立动静脉内瘘的患者分为两组 :颈内静脉组 31例 ,将半永久性双腔导管留置于颈内静脉 ;股静脉组19例 ,将半永久性双腔导管留置于股静脉。观察两组患者导管使用寿命、并发症、透析血流量及Kt/V值等指标。结果 :颈内静脉组导管使用寿命为 (387± 10 1)d ,而股静脉组为 (2 10± 88)d ,有统计学差异 (P <0 .0 5 ) ;颈内静脉组导管感染率、堵塞率明显低于股静脉组 (P <0 .0 5 ) ;两组的透析血流量与Kt/V值无明显差异。结论 :对不能建立动静脉内瘘的患者 ,股静脉及颈内静脉半永久性双腔导管是较好的血管通路 ,颈内静脉优于股静脉。     

Use of a subclavian venous catheter for short- and long-term hemodialysis in children

Vascular access for hemodialysis in children poses problems not encountered in adults because of the small size of the vessels available. The increasing use of peritoneal dialysis has created a large number of patients who need prompt access for hemodialysis for days to weeks during episodes of peritonitis. There are also occasional patients who have exhausted available fistula sites and still require hemodialysis. To address these problems, we designed a series of catheters for insertion in the subclavian vein. The catheters are stiffer than the Hickman type catheter to allow for higher flow rates without collapse. Seventy-five catheters were implanted in 58 patients with a mean age of 14 years. Twelve catheters were inserted in ten children for long-term (over 3 months) access; they have been in place for a mean of 259 days and used for a mean of 64 dialyses. In two children, the catheter has been the sole site for hemodialysis for over a year. Fifty-eight catheters were implanted in 43 patients for short-term hemodialysis. They were in place for a mean of 29 days and used for a mean of 13 dialyses. The major complications encountered were clotting of the catheter and migration out of position. Four catheters were removed because of infection. These new catheters provide effective hemodialysis for children as small as 7 kg with an acceptable morbidity rate and may be used for extended periods of time if necessary.     

Polyurethane Catheters for Long-Term Hemodialysis Access

Abstract: Chronic hemodialysis patients with failed native fistulas and/or synthetic arteriovenous grafts are usually dialyzed via surgically placed silicone jugular catheters such as the PermCath (Quinton, Seattle, WA, U.S.A.). We report a successful experience with the use of double lumen polyurethane central venous catheters placed percutaneously. Catheters with poor flows were replaced over a guidewire at the bedside. Eleven long-term hemodialysis patients failed arteriovenous access, 9 of them having had multiple attempts at fistulas and/or grafts. Seven of these patients had also failed peritoneal dialysis. They were dialyzed with polyurethane catheters for a mean of 681 ± 280 days (range 282–1150 days), requiring a mean of 3.4 ± 0.4 new venous punctures and 8.2 ± 1.5 catheter changes over a guidewire over that period of time. Actuarial patient survival was 50% at 2 years, and mean urea reduction during dialysis was 64.2 ± 1.7%. The septicemia rate was only 1.2 episodes per 1,000 catheter-days, but about 20% of patients experienced central venous occlusion, attributable to the use of subclavian catheter placement in 82% of the sites. The success of this technique and its elimination of the need for urokinase, radiologic interventions, and surgical placement warrant its consideration as an acceptable form of long-term vascular access, provided jugular placement allows reduced central venous occlusion rates.     

Surgical bypass for subclavian vein occlusion in hemodialysis patients

BACKGROUND: The majority of patients with end-stage renal disease are dependent on hemodialysis. Significant stenosis or occlusion of the subclavian vein is known to occur in 20% to 50% of patients who have had central venous catheters inserted into the subclavian vein or the internal jugular vein. Surgical bypass of the obstructed venous segment proximal to a functioning dialysis access site is an established treatment to relieve symptoms and salvage the functional dialysis access. STUDY DESIGN: A retrospective review of all subclavian venous bypass procedures performed at St Louis University Hospital from May 1987 to May 2000 was undertaken. Twelve procedures were performed during this time. The mean age of the patient was 55.5 years (range 17 to 72 years). There were 11 men and 1 woman. Before surgical bypass, all patients underwent bilateral venograms to evaluate their central venous systems. RESULTS: An extraanatomic surgical bypass was performed in all patients. Patients were followed for a mean of 16 months (range 1 to 79 months). At 1 month, 100% of hemodialysis access sites remained functional. At 1 year, 80%; 2 years, 60%; and 3 years, 25% of the salvaged arteriovenous hemodialysis access sites provided for functional dialysis. One patient required thrombectomy of the bypass graft at 14 months. CONCLUSIONS: Surgical bypass of an occluded or stenotic subclavian vein segment is successful in providing both symptomatic relief and salvage of a functioning dialysis access in the hemodialysis patient population. Study of the central venous system is essential in selecting an appropriate bypass procedure in individual patients.     

Real-time in-plane ultrasound-guided supraclavicular approach to subclavian vein cannulation in cardiac surgery: An underused approach

BackgroundAlthough the subclavian vein has several anatomical advantages; it has been underused in cardiac surgery. In this feasibility study, the author aimed to test real-time in-plane ultrasound-guided supraclavicular subclavian vein cannulation during elective cardiac surgical procedures as an acceptable alternative for the routinely used internal jugular vein.MethodsThis prospective feasibility study included forty adult patients undergoing elective on-pump cardiac surgical procedures performed during the period from June 2012 to January 2013. The aim of this study is to test real-time in-plane ultrasound-guided supraclavicular subclavian vein cannulation in terms of time of placement, number of attempts to puncture the vein, inadvertent arterial puncture, usability before and after sternal retractor expansion, and catheter tip position.ResultsSuccessful cannulation of the subclavian vein was accomplished in an average time of 43.8 (14.9) s. The median number of skin punctures was 1 (range 1–3). All lumens of the catheters were usable both before and after using the sternal retractor in all cases except one. The central venous pressure waveform has been recorded in all cases except one. Using transesophageal echocardiography all catheter tips were found to lie within 1.6 cm from the crista terminalis.ConclusionReal-time in-plane ultrasound-guided supraclavicular subclavian vein cannulation is an easy and safe approach to be used in adult patients undergoing cardiac surgical procedures.     

两次锁骨下静脉置管难易及成功率情况分析

目的观察52例患者不同时段两次锁骨下静脉置管难易程度及成功率情况并进行分析。方法选择重复住院需行化疗的肿瘤患者,为完成化疗均在不同时段行两次锁骨下静脉置管术,首次置管者入A组,第二次置管者入B组,两组均为52人次。结果 A组有38例患者一次性穿刺置管成功,14例患者非一次性穿刺置管成功;B组有28例患者一次性穿刺置管成功,24例患者非一次性穿刺置管成功。所有患者最终成功置管于右锁骨下静脉。A组与B组一次性穿刺成功率比较差异有统计学意义（P〈0.05）,表明A组一次性穿刺置管成功率高于B组。结论第二次锁骨下静脉置管者置管难度增大,但不影响置管成功率。     

超声引导经锁骨下静脉置入植入式输液港的效果

目的 探讨应用超声引导定位在经锁骨下静脉人路置入植入式输液港的效果.方法 选择乳腺癌患者60例,年龄28～63岁,体重41～70 kg,身高150～168 cm,ASA Ⅰ或Ⅱ级,拟经锁骨下静脉穿刺置入植入式输液港行长期输液及化疗,输液港导管尖端位置应在上腔静脉和右心房交界处.随机分为2组(n=30):对照组(C组)经锁骨下静脉穿刺,采用脉冲注射冰盐水实验的方法引导定位植入式输液港导管尖端位置.超声组(U组)经锁骨下静脉穿刺,采用超声引导定位植入式输液港导管尖端位置.所有患者术后均经过X线摄片进行导管定位.计算两组患者首次置入成功率.结果 U组患者术后X线摄片显示输液港导管尖端均在上腔静脉和右心房交界处,未发生导管偏离进入颈内静脉的现象,首次置入成功率100%.C组术后X线摄片显示有6例患者的输液港导管发生了偏离,进入颈内静脉,需回手术室在超声引导定位下重新穿刺置管,首次置入成功率80%.U组首次置入成功率高于C组(P<0.05).结论 超声引导定位是经锁骨下静脉正确放置植入式输液港的有效手段.