A review and guide to drug‐associated oral adverse effects—Oral mucosal and lichenoid reactions. Part 2

Dental practitioners and other health professionals commonly encounter and manage adverse medicine effects that manifest in the orofacial region. Numerous medicines are associated with a variety of oral adverse effects. However, due to lack of awareness and training, these side effects are not always associated with medicine use and are underreported to pharmacovigilance agencies by dentists and other health professionals. This article aims to inform health professionals about the various oral adverse effects that can occur and the most commonly implicated drugs to improve the management, recognition and reporting of adverse drug effects. This article follows on from Part 1; however, the focus here is on lichenoid reactions and oral mucosal disorders including oral aphthous‐like ulceration, mucositis and bullous disorders such as drug‐induced pemphigus, pemphigoid, Stevens‐Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis.     

Risk Management Strategies for Reducing Oral Adverse Drug Events

Oral adverse drug effects negatively impact oral health, comfort and function.BackgroundPatients treated in the oral health care environment take multiple medications, many of which cause oral complications. Dental professionals are challenged with making recommendations to prevent or minimize drug-induced oral disease risks, while reducing symptoms to improve oral health quality of life.MethodsThis paper presents a critical analysis of current evidence regarding common oral adverse drug events, and reviews existing clinical practice guidelines based upon findings from published systematic reviews.ResultsThere is a lack of sufficient, high quality evidence to support most recommendations for interventions to relieve signs and symptoms of drug-induced oral adverse events. Existing recommendations are largely based on data obtained from observational studies and case reports, and from randomized controlled clinical trials with significant design flaws and potential reporting bias. Outcome measures, especially those related to symptom relief and long-range benefits, are either insufficient or lacking.ConclusionsOral adverse drug effects are a common problem, and additional data is needed to support best practices for product recommendations to improve oral health in medicated patients.     

Systemic use of non‐biologic corticosteroids in orofacial diseases

Systemic non‐biologic agents have long been in clinical use in medicine – often with considerable efficacy, albeit with some adverse effects – as with all medications. With the advent of biologic agents, all of which currently are restricted to systemic use, there is a growing need to ensure which agents have the better therapeutic ratio. The non‐biologic agents (NBAs) include a range of agents, most especially the corticosteroids (corticosteroids). This study reviews the corticosteroids in systemic use in management of orofacial mucocutaneous diseases; subsequent studies discuss corticosteroid‐sparing agents used in the management of orofacial diseases, such as calcineurin inhibitors used to produce immunosuppression; purine synthetase inhibitors; and cytotoxic and other immunomodulatory agents.     

Oral manifestations of illicit drug use

The use of illicit and misuse of licit drugs is a global public health problem, with illicit drug use being responsible for 1.8% of the total disease burden in Australia in 2011. Oral adverse effects associated with illicit drug use are well‐established, with aggressive caries, periodontitis, bruxism, poor oral hygiene and general neglect documented. Other factors such as a high cariogenic diet and lifestyle, social and psychological factors compound the poorer oral health in illicit drug users. Literature has shown that the oral health‐related quality of life among injecting drug users is poorer compared with the Australian general population and the overall quality of life of addicted people correlates with caries experience. Thus, the role of the dentist is imperative in managing the oral health of these individuals. Given their widespread recreational use, it is likely that dental practitioners will encounter patients who are regular or past users of illicit drugs. The aim of this article is to describe the prevalence and mechanism of action of commonly used illicit drugs in Australia, including cannabis, methamphetamine, cocaine and heroin and to inform dentists about the common orofacial presentations of their side effects to help with patient management.     

口腔专科医院药品不良反应分析

目的分析口腔专科医院药品不良反应(adverse drug reaction,ADR)的发生情况,探讨专科医院预防ADR的措施,为临床合理用药提供参考。方法收集广东省口腔医院2010年45例ADR报告,对患者一般情况、药品种类、临床表现、给药途径等进行回顾性分析。结果 45例ADR中,麻醉和骨骼肌松弛药13例(28.89%),影响免疫功能药10例(22.22%),抗微生物药9例(20.00%),抗肿瘤药8例(17.78%)。各种给药方式中,静脉给药引发的ADR位居首位,共31例,占68.89%。ADR临床表现主要为皮肤及附件的过敏反应,共21例,占46.67%。结论分析ADR有利于医药人员加强ADR监测,控制用药风险,促进用药安全。     

Orofacial adverse effects of biological agents

Biological agents (BA) are increasingly used effectively in the treatment of a range of disorders, but to date, their application in diseases affecting the orofacial region has been fairly limited. Several orofacial adverse effects related to BA have been recently reported. However, the evidence for such adverse reactions is not always strong, and some of the adverse effects of BA have only been reported in case reports or case series. Most reactions to BA reported thus far have been in association with antitumor necrosis factor‐α agents, which is not surprising, as these are the most widely‐used BA. In the present study, the orofacial adverse effects are reported with various BA in order to sensitize clinicians to the possibilities. In addition, we briefly summarize the mode of action and indications of these BA. As the use and range of BA increases, the number and diversity of adverse effects might well increase. Despite the adverse effects of biological agents, these may often be less serious than the adverse effects of the more traditional immunosuppressive agents.     

Medical management of oral motor disorders: dystonia, dyskinesia and drug-induced dystonic extrapyramidal reactions

This article reviews three of the involuntary hyperkinetic motor disorders that affect the orofacial region, namely orofacial dystonia, oromandibular dyskinesia, as well as medication-induced extrapyramidal syndrome-dystonic reactions. Specifically, it discusses and contrasts the clinical features and management strategies for spontaneous primary and drug-induced motor disorders in the orofacial region. The article provides a list of medications reported to cause drug-related extrapyramidal motor activity above and beyond the more commonly known antipsychotics medications. It provides a needed update because the number and use of medications causing involuntary jaw muscle activity are increasing. For example, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI), stimulant medications and illegal drugs have all been reported to induce an orofacial motor activation as adverse reactions. This article also discusses briefly the genetic and traumatic events associated with spontaneous dystonia. Finally, this article presents an approach for management of the orofacial motor disorders that involves the following three steps: (1) collect a full clinical history and examination, including magnetic resonance imaging of the brain; (2) after ruling out CNS disease, adverse medications reactions and local pathology, try one or more of the motor-suppressive medications that may be helpful in these cases (e.g., cholinergic receptor antagonizers or blockers, and GABA-ergic including benzodiazepines); and (3) if the disorder is severe enough and focal enough to consider, and motor-suppressive medications are not adequate, then consider botulinum toxin injections. The contraindications, side effects, and usual approach for these medications and injections are discussed.     

Adverse drug reactions in dentistry

An adverse drug reaction (ADR) is an undesirable effect of a drug. ADRs are possible with any medication that is prescribed or administered in the dental office. While most pharmacological agents in use today have favourable drug profiles and are relatively safe, the prudent clinician must be aware of the potential ADRs that can occur and be prepared to manage any complications. Here we review the most commonly used agents in dentistry, namely local anaesthetics, sedatives, analgesics and antibiotics, and their ADRs and management.     

Influences of adult‐onset diabetes on orofacial pain and related health behaviors

Objectives: This study tested the hypothesis that persons with orofacial pain and comorbid adult‐onset diabetes will experience greater functional and emotional impact than persons experiencing orofacial pain without diabetes. Methods: A random‐digit dialing sampling procedure was used for a disproportionate probability sample of 10,341 persons who were screened for orofacial pain in the past 6 months and diabetes. This paper reports on 1,767 individuals reporting toothache pain and 877 reporting painful oral sores. A structured telephone interview assessed diabetes history, orofacial pain characteristics, oral health‐care behaviors, and emotional and functional impacts of orofacial pain. Results: The 6‐month point prevalence was 16.8 percent for toothache pain, 8.9 percent for painful oral sores, and 9.6 percent for adult‐onset diabetes. Individuals with comorbid orofacial pain and adult‐onset diabetes differed significantly on many of the pain characteristics and health behaviors compared with nondiabetic sufferers of orofacial pain. Diabetics were more likely than nondiabetics to have pain every day, to suffer negative emotions associated with pain, to experience disruption of daily activities and sleep, to make an emergency room visit for orofacial pain, and to report the current need for a pain‐related health‐care visit. Conclusions: Although diabetes is well known to be associated with neuropathic pain, these results indicate that the experience of nociceptive pain is exacerbated by diabetes. Findings have significance for the subjective experience of oral pain, dental‐care outcomes, and health‐related quality of life associated with oral‐health outcomes among individuals with diabetes.     

2014—2016年口腔专科医院药品不良反应上报情况的调查与分析

目的 了解口腔专科医院药品不良反应上报情况以及药品不良反应发生的特点和规律,为口腔临床安全用药提供参考。方法 对四川大学华西口腔医院2014—2016年上报的52例药品不良反应报告进行分析,分别按患者性别、年龄,药品不良反应相关的药品种类、临床表现等进行回顾性统计。结果 报告的52例药品不良反应中,男性和女性比例为1:1.36;发生的药品不良反应共涉及8类,其中抗菌药物相关药品不良反应的比例最高[24例,占46.15%（24/52）],其次为营养药物和抗肿瘤用药;头孢菌素类是药品不良反应相关的主要抗菌药物[20例,占83.33%（20/24）]。相比于其他给药途径,静脉滴注更易发生药品不良反应[49例,占94.23%（49/52）]。药品不良反应的临床表现以皮疹、瘙痒等皮肤及其附件损害为主,其次为消化系统以及心血管系统损害。结论 口腔专科医院应不断加强药品不良反应监测意识,完善相关报告分析制度。     

Medication use and prescribing considerations for elderly patients

Older adults consume more medications than any other segment of the population. Increasing lifespan means that more people will live into old age, frequently with disabilities and conditions man-aged by medications. Age-associated physiologic changes, medication use patterns, and adverse drug effects and interactions place the older adult at high risk for medication-related problems. Older adults living in institutions, those with complex medical problems,and those who do not adhere to medication regimens are at highest risk for negative health outcomes from medication mishaps. Dentists must be able to identify older adults who are susceptible to adverse drug events and to recognize which medications are most likely to precipitate problems.     

Systemic use of non‐biologics in orofacial diseases: 2. Purine synthesis inhibitors

Systemic non‐biological agents (NBAs) have been extensively used for immunosuppression in clinical medicine, often with considerable efficacy, although sometimes accompanied with adverse effects as with all medicines. With the advent of biological agents, all of which currently are restricted to systemic use, there is a rising need to identify which agents have the better therapeutic ratio. The NBAs include a range of agents, most especially the corticosteroids (corticosteroids). This article reviews the purine synthesis inhibitors (azathioprine and mycophenolate), which are currently the most commonly used systemically immunosuppressive agents in the management of orofacial mucocutaneous diseases. Subsequent articles discuss other corticosteroid‐sparing agents used in the management of orofacial disease, such as calcineurin inhibitors, and the cytotoxic and other immunomodulatory agents.     

Dietary and nutritional needs of patients after therapy for head and neck cancer

BackgroundThe number of cancer survivors in the general population is increasing. Oral and dental status affects patients' quality of life and oral function, which, in turn, may affect nutritional intake and general health. The authors review the importance of oral health and the role of the oral health care provider in supporting dietary intake and providing nutritional guidance.MethodsThe authors provide a brief review of oral complications of therapy and nutritional guidelines for patients with head and neck cancer.ResultsOral adverse effects of head and neck cancer treatment include salivary gland dysfunction, taste change, orofacial pain and mucosal sensitivity, oral infection, tissue defects and necrosis, trismus and fibrosis, progressive dental and periodontal disease, and problems with prosthesis function.ConclusionsManaging oral adverse effects of treatment may have an impact on dietary and nutritional intake, as well as on quality of life. Dietary modifications may be needed because of the patient's oral function and may include modification of food texture and flavor, as well as the use of dietary supplements.Clinical ImplicationsAs part of the patient's health care team, dental care professionals should be aware of the oral adverse effects of cancer therapy, as well as their role in recognizing and treating the resulting oral conditions. In addition, they should provide guidance to patients to support their oral dietary and nutritional intake.     

Effects of long‐term use of HAART on oral health status of HIV‐infected subjects

J Oral Pathol Med (2010) 39 : 397–406 Background: The aim of this study was to determine the effects of long‐term use of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) on oral health status of HIV‐infected subjects. Methods: Oral examination and measurement of saliva flow rate of both unstimulated and wax‐stimulated whole saliva were performed in HIV‐infected subjects with and without HAART, and in non‐HIV individuals. The following data were recorded; duration and risk of HIV infection, type and duration of HAART, CD4 cell count, viral load, presence of orofacial pain, oral dryness, oral burning sensation, oral lesions, cervical caries, and periodontal pocket. Multiple logistic regression analysis was performed to determine the effects of long‐term use of HAART on oral health status of HIV‐infected subjects. Results: One hundred and fifty‐seven HIV‐infected subjects – 99 on HAART (age range 23–57 years, mean 39 years) and 58 not on HAART (age range 20–59 years, mean 34 years) – and 50 non‐HIV controls (age range 19–59 years, mean 36 years) were enrolled. The most common HAART regimen was 2 NRTI + 2 NNRTI. HIV‐infected subjects without HAART showed greater risks of having orofacial pain, oral dryness, oral lesions, and periodontal pockets than those with short‐term HAART (P < 0.01). The subjects with long‐term HAART were found to have a greater risk of having oral lesions than those with short‐term HAART (P < 0.05). The unstimulated and stimulated salivary flow rates of the subjects with HAART were significantly lower than in those without HAART (P < 0.05). Conclusion: We conclude that long‐term HAART has adverse effects on oral health status of HIV‐infected subjects.     

Rapid onset of Parkinsonian-like symptoms in a geriatric dental patient: a case report

This article reviews the clinical issues regarding adverse drug reactions in geriatric dental patients. Accurate clinical observations and diagnosis are complicated in geriatric patients because they are predisposed to chronic illnesses, various prescribing physicians, and a decreased ability to metabolize and detoxify multiple medications. The authors have further reviewed neurological motor reactions with a detailed review of the physical presentations of Parkinson's disease. As such, the dental professional has a unique opportunity to provide observational feedback to other healthcare providers concerning the health status of their geriatric patients. In this case report, the changes in the patient's physical status and mental well-being were not a result or associated with a catastrophic event (eg, stroke, cardiovascular event, or head injury). The patient's rapid degeneration was anecdotally associated with a recently prescribed group of medications, which shows the need for healthcare professionals to be aware of changes in medications when assessing patients' health.     

An update of management of insomnia in patients with chronic orofacial pain

In this review, we discuss the management of chronic orofacial pain (COFP) patients with insomnia. Diagnostic work‐up and follow‐up routines of COFP patients should include assessment of sleep problems. Management is based on a multidisciplinary approach, addressing the factors that modulate the pain experience as well as insomnia and including both non‐pharmacological and pharmacological modalities. Parallel to treatment, patients should receive therapy for comorbid medical and psychiatric disorders, and possible substance abuse that may be that may trigger or worsen the COFP and/or their insomnia. Insomnia treatment should begin with non‐pharmacological therapy, to minimize potential side effects, drug interactions, and risk of substance abuse associated with pharmacological therapy. Behavioral therapies for insomnia include the following: sleep hygiene, cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia, multicomponent behavioral therapy or brief behavioral therapy for insomnia, relaxation strategies, stimulus control, and sleep restriction. Approved U.S. Food and Drug Administration medications to treat insomnia include the following: benzodiazepines (estazolam, flurazepam, temazepam, triazolam, and quazepam), non‐benzodiazepine hypnotics (eszopiclone, zaleplon, zolpidem), the melatonin receptor agonist ramelteon, the antidepressant doxepin, and the orexin receptor antagonist suvorexant. Chronic orofacial pain can greatly improve following treatment of the underlying insomnia, and therefore, re‐evaluation of COFP is advised after 1 month of treatment.