ICGR15在肝癌切除术前评估肝脏储备功能的作用

目的 探讨快速肝储备功能检测系统(DDG)中ICGR15在肝癌切除术前评估肝储备功能的作用.方法 从2005年8月至2007年10月收治66例肝癌切除病人,随机将病人分为ChildPugh评分组和ICGR15组,比较两组术后肝功能不全发生率的变化和分析Child-Pugh评分与ICGR15的关系.结果 Child-Pugh评分组术后出现腹水11例,黄疸8例,肝性脑病5例,死亡2例,肝功能不全发生率为34.4%;ICGR15组术后出现腹水8例,黄疽4例,肝性脑病2例,死亡0例,肝功能不全发生率为23.5%;两组肝功能不全发生率相比有显著性差异(P<0.05);ICGR15组Child-PughB级病人ICGR15均值为(14.38±8.2)%,显著高于Chitd-Pugh A级病人(7.84±4.8)%(P<0.01).结论 Child-Pugh评分与ICGR15值有密切关系,但ICGR15较Child-Pugh评分能更准确,灵敏地评估肝脏储备功能,对决定肝癌切除范围和手术预后的评估有指导作用.     

吲哚菁绿清除试验在肝癌术前评估肝脏储备功能的临床应用

【摘要】 目的 探讨吲哚菁绿清除试验(ICGR15)在肝癌术前评估肝储备功能的临床应用价值。方法〓回顾性分析2012年6月至2013年7月我院63例肝细胞癌手术病人临床资料,根据术前ICGR15分组,对比不同组别术后肝功能恢复情况,并对相关临床资料进行多因素非条件Logistic回归分析。结果〓ICGR15≥10%组术后肝功能代偿不全的发生率显著高于ICGR15<10%组(68.2% vs 19.5%,P<0.05)。Child-pugh评分中B级组ICGR15分值较A级组显著升高(19.01%±11.14% vs7.57%±8.34%,P<0.05);ICGR15分值与Child-pugh评分有较好的相关性(P<0.05,r=0.313)。ICGR15预测肝癌术后肝功能不全的特异度为82.5%,明显高于OGTT(P<0.05),而敏感度为65.2%,特异度为82.5%,阳性预测值为68.2%,阴性预测值为80.5%,但与OGTT比较均无统计学差异(P>0.05)。ICGR15与术后肝功能恢复情况有相关性(P<0.05,r=0.434),而OGTT与术后肝功能恢复情况无明显相关性(P>0.05)。Logistic回归分析示ICGR15、脉管癌栓、术中出血量以及术后其他相关并发症是发生术后肝功能代偿不全的独立危险因素。结论 ICGR15是肝癌术前评估肝脏储备功能较理想的临床指标,能较准确预测术后肝功能恢复情况。     

吲哚氰绿清除试验在半肝切除术中应用的价值

目的 探讨半肝切除术中测定吲哚氰绿15 min潴留率(ICGR15)在原发性肝癌手术中评估残余肝脏储备功能的价值.方法 44例原发性肝癌患者术中阻断待切除侧肝动脉和门静脉后,应用肝功能储备分析仪检测ICGR15.同时记录患者术前Child-Pugh评分、Child-Pugh分级及MELD评分,并评价患者术后肝功能恢复情况.结果 手术后共有17例患者出现肝功能不全,其中肝功能代偿轻度不全14例,重度不全3例.术中ICGR15<10%者术后肝功能不全发生率为17.9%(5/28),明显低于10%～15%者的75.0%(12/16),差异有统计学意义(P<0.05).Child-Pugh评分在肝功能恢复良好者、肝功能代偿轻度不全者和肝功能代偿重度不全者之间的差异无统计学意义(P>0.05); 而肝功能恢复良好者的ICGR15及MELD评分则明显低于肝功能代偿轻度和重度不全者(P<0.05).术前Child-Pugh A级者其术中ICGR15明显低于Child-Pugh B级者(P<0.05).结论 术中残余肝脏的ICGR15检测比传统的Child-Pugh评分更能准确地评估残余肝脏储备功能,可用于指导制定手术方案.     

吲哚氰绿排泄试验及标准余肝体积与肝癌切除术后肝功能不全的相关性研究

目的 结合吲哚氰绿(ICG)排泄试验及标准余肝体积探讨预防肝切除术后肝功能中、重度代偿不全的安全切肝界限.方法 对2007年3月至2008年2月期间收治的75例因肝癌行肝切除术的患者进行研究分析,根据术后肝功能代偿状况分组,将术后发生肝功能中度代偿不全患者术前ICG 15 min潴留率(ICGR15)值与术后标准余肝体积进行直线回归分析.结果 全部患者中,术后发生肝功能轻度代偿不全60例,中度代偿不全12例,重度代偿不全3例.轻度代偿不全组与中重度代偿不全组患者的年龄[(50±13)岁和(53±9)岁]、术前Child-Pugh评分[(5.4±0.6)分和(5.7±0.9)分]、凝血酶原时间[(13.6±1.0)s和(13.5±1.0)s]、国际标准化比值(1.09±0.10和1.06±0.10)等指标的差异均无统计学意义(P>0.05);而两组ICG排泄试验中的K值(0.20±0.04和0.17±0.03)和ICGR15值(6±4和9±4)以及术后标准余肝体积[(545±93)ml和(398±82)ml]的差异均有统计学意义(P<0.05).将术后肝功能中度代偿不全患者术前ICGR15值和术后标准余肝体积进行直线回归分析,发现两者呈正相关(R=0.640,P=0.025),回归方程为:标准余肝体积(ml/m~2)=1594.6×ICGR15+265.结论 将ICG排泄试验和标准余肝体积结合起来评估患者肝脏储备功能,有助于预测患者术后发生肝功能损害的程度及预防患者术后发生肝功能中、重度代偿不全.     

影响大肝癌切除术后肝功能代偿不良因素的分析

目的 研究影响大肝癌患者接受肝部分切除术后肝功能代偿不良的相关因素.方法 回顾性分析2009年12月至2010年12月40例行肝部分切除治疗的大肝癌患者临床资料,以术后肝功能代偿水平分组,分析相关因素的组间差异和意义.结果 术后肝功能代偿良好组(n=20)与代偿不良组(n=20)之间的肿瘤直径分别为(6.53±1.52) cm与(8.53±3.31) cm,吲哚氰绿15 min滞留率(ICGR-15)分别为(5.82±4.29)%与(12.27±6.36)%,手术时间分别为(191.75±38.53)min 与(262.05±58.54)min,第一肝门阻断时间分别为(6.65±7.62) min与(13.30±9.47)min,术中出血量分别为(322.5±214.28) ml 与(790±766.33) ml,差异均有统计学意义,P<0.05; Logistic回归分析示ICGR-15为术后发生肝功能代偿不良的独立危险因素.ICGR-15≤10%者术后代偿不良发生率明显低于ICGR-15>10%者(33.33%与84.62%,P<0.05).结论 大肝癌肝切除术后肝功能代偿不良的主要影响因素为ICGR-15、肿瘤直径、手术时间、第一肝门阻断时间和术中出血量;ICGR-15水平是术后肝功能代偿不良的独立危险因素;术前ICGR-15联合肝切除量可预测大肝癌患者肝切除后肝功能代偿不良的风险.     

原发性肝癌患者术前肝储备功能的预测和术后评价

目的 运用脉动色素浓度法(PDD)测定吲哚氰绿潴留率(ICGR15)及有效肝脏血流量(EHBF)评估原发性肝癌患者术前肝脏的储备功能.方法 对55例原发性肝癌患者术前应用PDD法检测ICGR15和EHBF并根据ICGR15分为3组,并行Child-Pugh评分;根据术后肝功的恢复情况将患者分为肝功能恢复良好(G)、轻度不全(M)和重度不全组(S).分析ICGR15三组中术后肝功不全的发生率以及在不同肝功恢复组中ICGR15、EHBF与Child-Pugh评分比较.结果 术后肝功不全在ICGR15三组中的发生率差异具有统计学意义(P＜0.05);肝功恢复不同组间ICGR15、EHBF同Child-Pugh评分比较具有显著性差异(P＞0.05);在不同的Child-Pugh分级之间,ICGR15及EHBF值差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05).结论 ICGR15、EHBF比传统Child-Pugh评分可以更准确的评估肝储备功能并指导确定手术方案.     

乙肝相关性肝癌肝脏储备功能评估方案的初步探讨

目的:探讨适合我国乙肝相关性肝癌肝切除患者的肝脏储备功能的评估方案。方法:回顾性分析连续129例因乙肝相关性肝癌行肝部分切除术患者的临床资料,比较3种经典的肝脏储备功能评估方案预测术后肝衰竭发生的特异性与敏感性。结果:全组共有13例(10.1%)患者术后发生肝衰竭(肝衰竭组),其中1例院内死亡;116例术后术后肝功能恢复良好(肝功能恢复良好组)。肝衰竭组患者行大块肝切除比例、术前吲哚青绿15 min滞留率(ICGR15)及年龄明显高于术后肝功能恢复良好组(均P0.05)。ICGR15评估方案与决策树(Decision Tree)评估方案均具有评估价值(均P0.01)。而Decision Tree评估方案预测术后肝衰竭的敏感性、特异性、阳性预测值及阴性预测值分别为95%,84%,64%和98%,均优于ICGR15评估方案。结论:Decision Tree方案适用于乙肝相关性肝癌肝切除患者的肝脏储备功能评估。     

应用吲哚青绿试验与血栓弹力图替代去唾液酸糖蛋白受体分析定量评估肝储备功能

目的：应用吲哚青绿实验与血栓弹力图检测指标,替代肝细胞表面去唾液酸糖蛋白受体分析,建立肝储备功能定量评估系统,并与Child-Pugh评分进行比较,了解其在肝切除术患者肝储备功能评估中的临床应用价值。方法对2012年1月1日至12月31日于本科室行肝部分切除术肝占位病变的患者共55例,测量PHCASGPR＋、ICGR15、EHBF、R值与K值,建立以PHCASGPR＋为因变量（Y）, ICGR15、EHBF、R值与K值为自变量（Xn）的肝储备功能定量评估系统,与Child-Pugh评分进行比较,了解两种方法预测术后肝功能代偿情况的准确率。结果 Child-Pugh预测术后肝功能代偿良好准确率为56.67%,Y值预测术后肝功能代偿良好准确率为84.62%（χ2=5.374,P =0.020）;Child-Pugh预测术后肝功能代偿不全准确率为76.00%,Y值预测术后肝功能代偿不全准确率为96.55%（χ2=5.400,P =0.020）。结论建立的肝储备功能定量评估系统能够更全面评价肝切除患者围手术期肝储备功能。     

联合ICGR15与CT测量残肝体积在原发性肝癌病人的临床应用

目的探讨联合ICGR15与CT测量残肝体积在原发性肝癌病人的临床应用价值。方法研究对象为2014年9月至2017年6月在我院肝胆外科住院确诊为原发性肝癌并且进行手术治疗的48例病人。术前完成病人的生化、凝血功能检查、腹水B超,测定体表面积和肝体积,进行ICGR15检测,术后根据病人有否出现肝功能衰竭分为肝功能衰竭组(A组)9例,以及无肝功能衰竭组(B组)39例。对两组临床资料以及对三种评估方法进行比较。结果 48例病人肝癌术后出现肝功能衰竭9例,无肝功能衰竭39例,发生率为18.75%,两组病人的年龄、ALT、AST、TBIL、ALB、PT、术前Child-Pugh评分、手术时间、术中输血量等指标的差异均无统计学意义(P0.05);而术前ICGR15、SRLV、肝门阻断时间以及术中出血量等指标差异均有统计学意义(P0.05);ICGR15和残肝体积占比分别与Child-Pugh分级比较,差异有统计学意义(P0.05);ICGR15和残肝体积占比的比较,差异无统计学意义(P0.05)。结论 ICGR15与CT测量残肝体积可以作为评估原发性肝癌病人肝切除术后肝功能衰竭的准确指标,且联合应用两者可以互补优势。     

吲哚氰绿测定与Child-Pugh分级在肝储备评估中的价值

目的探讨吲哚氰绿清除试验与Child-Pugh肝功能分级在术前评估肝脏储备功能的价值。方法选择我院2009年10月至2011年2月期间的103例肝癌肝切除患者为对象,手术前测定ICG 15min潴留率(ICGR15),并评估肝纤维化百分比,对手术前、后肝功能进行Child-Pugh分级,分析三者之间的关系。结果随着肝功能级别的升高,肝纤维化百分比逐渐升高,在Child-Pugh A、B、C分级间两两比较差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。ICGR15与肝纤维化百分比呈直线相关趋势(rs=0.960,P<0.05)。术后Child-Pugh分级由A级变为B级或由B级变为C级的患者术前ICGR15值均明显高于术前、术后Child-Pugh分级不变的患者(P<0.05)。结论联合ICGR15和Child-Pugh分级能提高术前对于肝脏储备功能评估的准确性。     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.