Victimization of students with autism spectrum disorder: A review of prevalence and risk factors

Bullying is a serious problem among school-aged youth. Research suggests students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are overrepresented as victims within the bullying dynamic. This review synthesizes 21 articles involving prevalence rates of victimization of school-age youth with ASD and factors related to the victimization of youth with ASD. Prevalence studies suggest students with ASD are frequent victims of bullying with victimization rates ranging by study methodology. Studies reporting factors related to the victimization of students with ASD include individual (i.e., characteristics of ASD, social vulnerability, behavior problems, disability, race, academic achievement, and age of student) and contextual (i.e., educational setting, school transportation, parental mental health, parental engagement and confidence, family socioeconomic status, and social support from peers and friendship) factors. Strategies for prevention and intervention are posed. Limitations and directions for future inquiry are addressed.     

The experience of friendship,victimization and bullying in children with an autism spectrum disorder: Associations with child characteristics and school placement

Children with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD) may be vulnerable to social isolation and bullying. We measured the friendship, fighting/bullying and victimization experiences of 10–12-year-old children with an ASD (N = 100) using parent, teacher and child self-report. Parent and teacher reports were compared to an IQ-matched group of children with special educational needs (SEN) without ASD (N = 80) and UK population data. Parents and teachers reported a lower prevalence of friendships compared to population norms and to children with SEN without an ASD. Parents but not teachers reported higher levels of victimization than the SEN group. Half of the children with an ASD reported having friendships that involved mutuality. By teacher report children with an ASD who were less socially impaired in mainstream school experienced higher levels of victimization than more socially impaired children; whereas for more socially impaired children victimization did not vary by school placement. Strategies are required to support and improve the social interaction skills of children with an ASD, to enable them to develop and maintain meaningful peer friendships and avoid victimization.     

Bullying of youth with autism spectrum disorder,intellectual disability,or typical development: Victim and parent perspectives

In-depth interviews conducted separately with 13-year-olds with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), intellectual disability (ID), or typical development (TD) and their mothers investigated the experiences of victimization in the form of bullying. Coded constructs from the interviews were utilized to compare groups on the frequency, type, and impact of victimization. Youth with ASD were victimized more frequently than their ID or TD peers, and the groups differed with regard to the type of bullying and the impact it had, with ASD youth faring the worst. Higher internalizing problems and conflict in friendships were found to be significant predictors of victimization, according to both youth- and mother-reports. These predictors were found to be more salient than ASD status alone. Implications for practice are discussed.     

Autism Spectrum Disorder and School Bullying: Who is the Victim? Who is the Perpetrator?

While a growing number of studies indicate associations between experiences of bullying and autism spectrum disorder (ASD), it is not clear what roles comorbid behavioral problems may play. We investigated the experiences of children with ASD as victims and/or perpetrators of bullying. Children with ASD epidemiologically ascertained participated in a cross-sectional study. Although children with ASD showed significantly increased risk for bullying involvement compared to community children, after controlling for comorbid psychopathology and other demographic factors, increased risks for being perpetrators or victim-perpetrators disappeared while risk for being bullied/teased continued to be significantly elevated. This finding will help guide medical, educational and community personnel to effectively identify children with ASD at risk for school bullying and develop interventions.     

Bullying Among Adolescents With Autism Spectrum Disorders: Prevalence and Perception

This study examined: (a) the prevalence of bullying and victimization among adolescents with ASD, (b) whether they correctly perceived bullying and victimization, and (c) whether Theory of Mind (ToM) and bullying involvement were related to this perception. Data were collected among 230 adolescents with ASD attending special education schools. We found prevalence rates of bullying and victimization between 6 and 46%, with teachers reporting significantly higher rates than peers. Furthermore, adolescents who scored high on teacher- and self-reported victimization were more likely to misinterpret non-bullying situations as bullying. The more often adolescents bullied, according to teachers and peers, and the less developed their ToM, the more they misinterpreted bullying situations as non-bullying. Implications for clinical practice are discussed.     

Family Experiences with the Diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorder: System Barriers and Facilitators of Efficient Diagnosis

This paper examines family experiences with the efficiency of ASD diagnosis. Children were age 8 or younger with ASD (n?=?450). Outcomes were delay from first parent concern to diagnosis, shifting diagnoses, and being told child did not have ASD. Predictors were screening, travel distance, and problems finding providers. Logit models were used to examine associations. Screening was associated with reduced delay in diagnosis; problems finding providers were associated with greater delay. Screening, travel distance, and delay in diagnosis were associated with shifting diagnoses and being told child did not have ASD. Physician and parent training in communication and addressing mental health professional shortages and maldistribution may improve the diagnosis experiences of families of children with ASD.     

Association between school bullying levels/types and mental health problems among Taiwanese adolescents

Background

Few studies have compared the risks of mental health problems among the adolescents with different levels and different types of bullying involvement experiences.

Method

Bullying involvement in 6,406 adolescents was determined through use of the Chinese version of the School Bullying Experience Questionnaire. Data were collected regarding the mental health problems, including depression, suicidality, insomnia, general anxiety, social phobia, alcohol abuse, inattention, and hyperactivity/impulsivity. The association between experiences of bullying involvement and mental health problems was examined. The risk of mental health problems was compared among those with different levels/types of bullying involvement.

Results

The results found that being a victim of any type of bullying and being a perpetrator of passive bullying were significantly associated with all kinds of mental health problems, and being a perpetrator of active bullying was significantly associated with all kinds of mental health problems except for general anxiety. Victims or perpetrators of both passive and active bullying had a greater risk of some dimensions of mental health problems than those involved in only passive or active bullying. Differences in the risk of mental health problems were also found among adolescents involved in different types of bullying.

Conclusions

This difference in comorbid mental health problems should be taken into consideration when assessing adolescents involved in different levels/types of bullying.     

Traditional Victims and Cybervictims: Prevalence,Overlap, and Association with Mental Health Among Adolescents in Singapore

Traditional bullying typically occurs in schools and has been associated with a myriad of mental health problems. Recent evidence has indicated that cyberbullying may just be traditional bullying that is extended to the online world, but this possibility has received only limited study in Asian countries. This study explored the co-occurrence of traditional and cybervictimization and its association with mental health among 3319 adolescents aged 12 to 17 years in Singapore. Victims of bullying were categorized into mutually exclusive groups: traditional-only victims, cyber-only victims, or combined traditional and cybervictims. Results indicated that there were substantial overlaps between victimization in traditional bullying and cyberbullying and that traditional victimization was more prevalent than cybervictimization. Being a victim of either form of bullying (i.e., traditional-only or cyber-only victims) was associated with higher reports of internalizing and externalizing problems, and combined traditional and cybervictims reported the most internalizing problems. However, there were no significant differences in problem scores between traditional-only victims and cyber-only victims. The findings highlight the need to consider the extensive overlap between traditional and cybervictimization when investigating their differential association with adolescents’ mental health. Prevention and intervention efforts by school staff and mental health practitioners need to target both traditional bullying and cyberbullying in an integrated manner, and extra attention should be provided to adolescents who are victims of both forms of bullying.     

Externalizing Problems and Mental Health Symptoms Mediate the Relationship Between Bullying Victimization and Addictive Behaviors

Victims of bullying are more likely to engage in addictive behaviors and experience mental health problems. However, the pathway by which bullying victimization and mental health problems predict engagement in multiple addictive behaviors remains unclear. The purpose of this study is to compare two mediation models in their prediction of engagement in multiple addictive behaviors. Survey responses were collected from 6641 high-school students aged 12 to 19. Measures include frequency of bullying victimization, past month use of alcohol, marijuana, cigarettes, past year gambling, and the presence of anxiety, depression, and externalizing problems. Results indicate that the model with mental health symptoms and externalizing problems as mediators provided the better prediction of engagement in multiple addictive behaviors. Overall, the comparison of these mediation models clarifies the relationship between bullying victimization and addictive behaviors and the role of mental health symptoms and externalizing problems in this relationship.

     

Victimization and bullying among 8-year-old Finnish children

Objective  There are only few population-based time-trend studies on changes in prevalence of bullying and victimization among children. The main aim of this study was to find out whether changes have occurred in prevalence rates of bullying and victimization from 1989 to 1999 among eight-year-old children. The associations between victimization and bullying and psychiatric symptoms and their possible differences in the statistical strengths of associations between the years 1989 and 1999 were also studied. Method  Two cross-sectional, representative samples from southern Finland were compared. All children born in 1981 (1989 sample, n = 985, response rate 95%) and 1991 (1999 sample, n = 962, response rate 86%) and living in the selected school district were included in the study samples. Children, parents and teachers were asked about bullying and victimization. The Children’s Depression Inventory and Rutter’s parent and teacher scales were used to study psychiatric symptoms. Results  In 1999, fewer 8-year-old children were victims of bullying than in 1989. There was a decrease in the number of bullies but the change was statistically significant only in the parental reports. The statistical strengths of associations of victimization and bullying with psychiatric symptoms were mainly the same in 1989 as in 1999. Conclusions  Slightly decreased levels of victimization among 8-year-old Finnish children is a promising result, but further time-trend studies are needed, as well as qualitative studies, to obtain a deeper understanding of the bullying phenomenon and the factors reducing it. It might be that especially young children are suspectible to influences diminishing victimisation and bullying.     

Differences in predictors of traditional and cyber-bullying: a 2-year longitudinal study in Korean school children

Traditional bullying has received considerable research but the emerging phenomenon of cyber-bullying much less so. Our study aims to investigate environmental and psychological factors associated with traditional and cyber-bullying. In a school-based 2-year prospective survey, information was collected on 1,344 children aged 10 including bullying behavior/experience, depression, anxiety, coping strategies, self-esteem, and psychopathology. Parents reported demographic data, general health, and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms. These were investigated in relation to traditional and cyber-bullying perpetration and victimization at age 12. Male gender and depressive symptoms were associated with all types of bullying behavior and experience. Living with a single parent was associated with perpetration of traditional bullying while higher ADHD symptoms were associated with victimization from this. Lower academic achievement and lower self esteem were associated with cyber-bullying perpetration and victimization, and anxiety symptoms with cyber-bullying perpetration. After adjustment, previous bullying perpetration was associated with victimization from cyber-bullying but not other outcomes. Cyber-bullying has differences in predictors from traditional bullying and intervention programmes need to take these into consideration.     

Childhood Bullying Behaviors as a Risk for Suicide Attempts and Completed Suicides: A Population-Based Birth Cohort Study

ObjectiveThere are no previous studies about the association of childhood bullying behavior with later suicide attempts and completed suicides among both sexes. The aim was to study associations between childhood bullying behaviors at age 8 years and suicide attempts and completed suicides up to age 25 years in a large representative population-based birth cohort.MethodThe sample includes 5,302 Finnish children born in 1981. Information about bullying was gathered at age 8 years from self-report, as well as parent and teacher reports. Information about suicide attempts requiring hospital admission and completed suicides was gathered from three different Finnish registries until the study participants were 25 years old. Regression analyses were conducted to determine whether children who experience childhood bullying behaviors are at risk for later suicide attempts and completed suicides after controlling for baseline conduct and depression symptoms.ResultsThe association between bullying behavior at age 8 years and later suicide attempts and completed suicides varies by sex. Among boys, frequent bullying and victimization are associated with later suicide attempts and completed suicides but not after controlling for conduct and depression symptoms; frequent victimization among girls is associated with later suicide attempts and completed suicides, even after controlling for conduct and depression symptoms.ConclusionsWhen examining childhood bullying behavior as a risk factor for later suicide attempts and completed suicides, each sex has a different risk profile.     

Characterizing Community-Based Mental Health Services for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders and Disruptive Behavior Problems

This study describes the characteristics of children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) with disruptive behavior problems served in community-based mental health clinics, characterizes psychotherapy process and outcome, and examines differences between children with ASD and a non-ASD comparison group. Results indicate that children with ASD served in this setting are high functioning and diagnostically complex. Certain research-based behavioral and cognitive behavioral psychotherapeutic strategies were observed frequently, while parent training strategies and active teaching strategies were observed less frequently. The intensity or thoroughness with which strategies were pursued was relatively low. Outcome analyses indicate improvement in child symptoms and family functioning. Treatment delivery and outcome were similar for children with and without ASD. These findings represent the first detailed observational data characterizing community-based mental health services for children with ASD.     

Emotion understanding of victimized and bullying children in kindergarten--starting points for a prevention?

Being victimized by peers is one of the most negative social experiences of childhood and adolescence. Emotions play a central role in these kinds of interaction. Surprisingly however, socio-affective skills of victimized and bullying children have only rarely been the subject of investigation. In this study, the emotion understanding of Swiss kindergarten children between the ages of four and seven years was probed with the Test of Emotion Comprehension (TEC) and an emotion recognition task. Individual scores in victimization and bullying behavior were determined using teacher ratings. Ordinal regression analyses showed that problems in recognizing mimic emotions (specifically anger, sadness and fear), understanding external causes of emotions and understanding the possibility of hiding emotions were predictive of more victimization. Likewise, problems in understanding external causes of emotions were related to more bullying behavior. Implications of these results for the prevention of bullying are discussed.     

Mutual long-term effects of school bullying,victimization, and justice sensitivity in adolescents

In the present study, we investigate long-term relations between experiences of aggression at school and the development of justice sensitivity as a personality disposition in adolescents. We assessed justice sensitivity (from the victim, observer, and perpetrator perspective), bullying, and victimization among 565 German 12- to 18-year-olds in a one-year longitudinal study with two measurement points. Latent path analyses revealed gender differences in long-term effects of bullying and victimization on observer sensitivity and victim sensitivity. Experiences of victimization at T1 predicted an increase in victim sensitivity among girls and a decrease in victim sensitivity among boys. Bullying behavior at T1 predicted an increase in victim sensitivity among boys and a decrease in observer sensitivity among girls. We did not find long-term effects of justice sensitivity on bullying and victimization. Our findings indicate that experiences of bullying and victimization have gender-specific influences on the development of moral personality dispositions in adolescents.     

Exploring Predictors of Bullying and Victimization of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): Findings from NLTS 2012

Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders - Research suggests that bullying victimization occurs at higher rates among students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) than among their...     

Cyber bullying victimization and adolescent mental health: The differential moderating effects of intrapersonal and interpersonal emotional competence

IntroductionIndividuals who experience bullying victimization are at increased risk for future health and social problems. Despite this, studies show that not all bullying victims are in ill health, suggesting the importance of investigating protective factors that could counteract the adverse effects. The present study focused on investigating the moderating effects of emotional competence (EC) in the relationship between cyber-bullying victimization (CV) and mental health among adolescents.MethodsResponses from 6403 adolescents aged 12 to 18 (1925 male, 4478 female, M_age = 16.35, SD = 1.46) with no missing data were used for analysis. The cross-sectional data analyzed in the present study was a part of a large longitudinal online survey conducted by the University of Tokyo in Japan. Participants were recruited among adolescent users of a social networking service widely used in Japan for communication.ResultsResults of regression analysis showed significant direct effects of CV on psychological distress/self-esteem, confirming the adverse effects of victimization. Results also suggested that high intrapersonal EC weakened the relationship between CV and psychological distress, whereas high interpersonal EC strengthened the relationship. There were no significant interactions between CV and EC in predicting self-esteem.ConclusionsIntrapersonal and interpersonal EC may play differential moderating roles in the relationship between CV and psychological distress, the former by buffering the effect and the latter by exacerbating it. Interventions targeting abilities to handle one's own emotions may help decrease distress among adolescents with CV experiences.     

Types and experiences of bullying in adolescents with an autism spectrum disorder

Being victimized by one's peers is a major problem in adolescence, and research has suggested that individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) may experience higher rates of bullying than their typically-developing (TD) peers. However, it is currently unclear whether adolescents with ASD are victimized more by their peers simply because they are ‘different’. This study was designed to examine percentage rates across different types of bullying behaviour in adolescents with an ASD (n = 24), in comparison to a group of special-needs adolescents without an ASD (n = 22), and a group of typically developing peers (n = 24), to determine whether simply being ‘different’ leads to higher rates of victimization. We also examined the agreement between parental and self-reports of bullying behaviour experienced by these groups. Overall, more adolescents with ASD reported victimization than adolescents in the other two groups. In addition, those with ASD reported more social bullying in comparison to the other two groups and more physical bullying than the TD group. No difference was found between parental and self-reports for the bullying experienced by the adolescents with ASD or special needs; however, TD adolescents reported higher levels of victimization than their parents reported for them. Contributing factors for the victimization experienced by adolescents with an ASD are discussed.     

Cyber bullying in ADHD and Asperger Syndrome populations

Cyber bullying or electronic bullying refers to bullying that occurs through the Internet or cellular phones. With the rise of technology, researchers have shown a keen interest in the topic of cyber bullying. However, that interest has not extended to individuals with special needs. To address this gap in the literature, the current study examined the prevalence of both “traditional” bullying and cyber bullying in youth with ADHD and/or Asperger's Syndrome, and assessed the social, psychological, and health effects of bullying on participants. In addition, the study addressed the disconnect between parents’ understanding of their child's online experiences and their child's actual experiences in the virtual world. Forty-two children and youth reported high rates of bullying victimization through both traditional and electronic means. Individuals not involved with bullying showed greater levels of physical and psychological health relative to those involved with bullying. Parents and children disagreed on a number of issues related to use of the Internet, indicating the need for more clear communication between parents and their children. The results are discussed in terms of theory of mind, both for self and for others.     

Bullying and victimization behaviors in boys and girls at South Korean primary schools

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the prevalence and correlates of bullying and victimization behaviors in boys and girls at South Korean primary schools. METHOD: In a cross-sectional survey, 1,344 fourth-grade primary school children completed a questionnaire on self-reported bullying and victimization behaviors, depression, anxiety, body image, coping strategies, and self-esteem as well as the self-report Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Parents completed a questionnaire on demographic data, the General Health Questionnaire-12, and the Korean version of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. RESULTS: The prevalence of bullies, victims, and bullies/victims was 12.0%, 5.3%, and 7.2%, respectively. Boys were significantly more likely to be bullies and bullies/victims. In the multivariate analyses, bullying and victimization behaviors were associated with gender, greater than average height, higher depression, higher trait anxiety, lower self-esteem, and total difficulties of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Differences in the associations were found between boys and girls. CONCLUSIONS: The authors found that bullying is common among South Korean primary school students and that bullying and victimization behaviors are related to various emotional, behavioral, and social problems; some gender-related differences are also evident.