中央沟区病变继发癫痫的显微手术治疗

目的 探讨中央沟区病变继发癫痫的显微手术治疗.方法 总结35例首发症状为癫痫的中央沟区病变,应用长程脑电图、偶极子、皮层电极定位致病灶;MRI结合术中皮质体感诱发电位、皮质刺激术定位脑功能区,显微镜下脑沟人路,保护脑功能区,病变切除后功能区残余癫痫波应用脑皮层热灼.结果 术后随访1-3年,疗效达到Engel I级31例、Ⅱ级4例、没有Ⅲ、Ⅳ级患者.术后3个月肢体功能障碍较术前改善23例,不变7例,加重5例,无手术死亡.结论 准确定位致痫灶和功能区,脑沟入路皮质下切除病变,配合功能区残余癫痫波皮层热灼,能保护肢体功能、控制癫痫的发作.     

皮层脑电监测下颞叶病变合并癫的手术治疗

目的探讨皮层脑电监测下合并颞叶病变的癫手术治疗效果。方法 21例伴有癫症状的颞叶病变患者,术中通过皮层脑电图确定癫灶,切除病变后,切除或热灼可疑癫疒间灶。术后随访患者的癫发作情况。结果 21例患者切除颞叶病变前均可通过皮层脑电图探及疒间波,病变及疒间灶完全切除后,癫波消失者19例,2例功能区患者虽多次皮层热灼,仍可见偶发棘波。术后20例未再有癫疒间发作,1例有部分性发作,用抗癫疒间药可控制。结论术中皮层脑电监测切除或热灼癫灶是一种有效控制颞叶病变切除术后癫发作的方法。     

皮层脑电图监测下切除有癫痫症状的脑肿瘤

目的 探讨皮层脑电图监测下切除或热灼伴有癫痫症状的脑肿瘤的手术效果。方法 16例伴有癫痫症状的脑肿瘤患者，术中通过皮层脑电图确定癫痫灶，切除肿瘤后，切除或热灼可疑癫痫灶。术后随访患者的癫痫发作情况。结果 16例患者切除肿瘤前均可通过皮层脑电图探及痫波，肿瘤及痫灶完全切除后，痫波消失者15例，1例功能区患者虽多次皮层热灼，仍可见偶发棘波。术后15例未再有癫痫发作，1例有部分性发作，用抗癫痫药可控制。结论 术中皮层脑电图监测切除或热灼癫痫灶是一种有效控制肿瘤切除术后癫痫发作的方法。     

功能性磁共振导航结合皮质电极描记切除功能区及其附近的癫痫灶

目的探讨利用fMRI导航结合皮质电极描记切除功能区及其附近癫痫灶的临床疗效。方法回顾性分析11例癫痫灶起源于功能区及其附近的癫痫病人的手术经验。病人术前发作频率（2．63±1．68）次／月。术前利用fMRI检查确定功能区位置并与导航图像进行融合,术中使用皮质电极描记标记出癫痫波的位置,通过导航系统了解功能区与癫痫波起源的关系。在保留功能区皮质的基础上,将病灶和癫痫波起源处皮质切除,而位于功能区皮质上的癫痫波起源处则给予小功率皮质热灼。结果皮质发育不全8例,灰质异位症2例,脑外伤后局部皮质软化1例。术后随访6～12个月,癫痫发作完全消失9例,术后3-6d内发作1次2例,随后未再出现癫痫发作。术后未出现明显的神经功能损害加重的情况。术后3个月复查脑电图显示基本正常。结论fMRI导航结合皮质电极描记切除起源于功能区及其附近的癫痫灶是一种微侵袭的手术方法,在切除癫痫灶的同时能最大限度地保留功能区的神经功能。     

颅脑病变继发癫痫术中皮层脑电图监测96例效果分析

目的总结术中皮层脑电图（ECoG）用于神经外科手术治疗继发性癫痫的临床经验。方法使用多功能电生理监测仪,共对96例继发性癫痫患者术中皮层脑电图监测,对原发灶切除结合外周皮层电灼的方法,分析ECoG在继发性癫痫手术中的意义。结果通过术中皮层脑电图监测,其中88例在原发灶外周监测发现棘波（占91．6％）,切除原发灶及扩大手术范围行低功率电灼皮层后,85例棘波完全消失或明显减少（占96．6％）,术后复查常规脑电图（EEG）显示癫痫控制率为96．8％。结论术中皮层脑电图监测在颅脑病变合并继发性癫痫的患者治疗中,单纯切除原发灶及扩大范围电灼虽不能完全消除癫痫灶,但ECoG监测对于指导癫痫灶的处理是术中必不可少的监测手段。     

神经导航引导海马病灶切除联合皮质热灼治疗顽固性颞叶内侧癫痫

目的探讨神经导航引导、皮质电极监测下对海马病灶进行致痫灶切除,辅助以皮质痫灶横纤维热灼术治疗顽固性颞叶内侧癫痫的临床价值。方法通过对16例海马病灶的顽固性癫痫的病人,术前进行24小时脑电图描记定位致痫灶,手术前进行磁共振扫描,数据输人神经导航系统,手术当天进行导航注册配准．术中进行颞叶皮质电极描记,并在导航棒引导下找寻海马病灶,完整切除并辅以皮质热灼治疗致痫灶。结果术后0．5～3年内随访,按Engel癫痫疗效分级：发作完全消失11例(68．8％),明显改善4例(25％),改善1例(6．2％)。结论神经导航有助于海马病灶的准确找寻与切除,在皮质电极监测下,辅助皮质热灼是治疗顽固性颞叶内侧癫痫的一种有效、安全的方法。     

术中脑电监测在癫痫手术中的应用分析

目的讨论术中脑电监测在癫痫手术中的应用意义。方法40例难治性癫痫患者，术中采用日本光电9200脑电描记系统。应用皮层电极，在致痫灶靶区皮层，对癫痫起源部位进一步精确定位，手术切除致痫灶，并在皮层脑电图（ECoG）监测下进行病灶扩大切除、胼胝体切开或多处软膜下横切（MST），术后常规应用抗癫痫药物。结果全部患者在预定的癫痫灶局部均可记录到癫痫波；病变及癫痫灶切除后即时检测，显示痫性放电明显减少24例，其中3例非功能区海绵状血管瘤，瘤体切除后仍可见大量棘波，扩大切除周围皮质，棘波显著减少；3例功能区胶质瘤患者虽经MST后，棘波有一定改善，仍可见一定量棘波；12例海马硬化及1例海马萎缩术后，仍存在一定量棘波。术后疗效评价，按照Engel分级评价为：Ⅰ级27例，Ⅱ级6例，Ⅲ级4例，Ⅳ级3例；总有效者37例，有效率达92．5％。结论在癫痫手术中运用脑电监测，可以进一步精确定位致痫灶，指导手术中正确切除癫痫灶及预示手术效果，有助于提高手术治疗的有效性，在癫痫外科治疗中具有一定应用价值。     

局灶性皮质发育不良所致难治性癫痫的微创神经外科治疗

目的应用神经导航结合术中皮质电极描记,微创治疗局灶性皮质发育不良(focal cortical dysplasia,FCD)所致的难治性癫痫。方法 26例局灶性皮质发育不良所致的难治性癫痫患者,术前常规使用CT、磁共振成像(magnetic resonanceimaging,MRI)、长程视频脑电图(digital video signal and electroencephalogram,VEEG)、磁共振波谱分析(MR Spectroscopy,MRS)等检查,如病灶位于功能区则行功能性磁共振成像(functional magnetic resonance imaging,fMRI)。术中通过神经导航确定的病灶与ECoG确定的致痫灶位置及范围进行对比,了解两者的吻合程度及差异,综合分析后精确并标记出癫痫波的起源位置和范围,将局灶性皮质发育不良病灶和周边的致痫皮质切除;如致痫灶位于功能区或附近,在保留功能区皮质的基础上,给予低功率皮质热灼。结果术后病理结果:26例患者病理标本符合FCD。术后患者无明显并发症出现。根据Engel术后效果分级进行评估,Ⅰ级23例,Ⅱ级2例,Ⅲ级1例。结论神经导航结合术中皮质电极描记在局灶性皮质发育不良所致的难治性癫痫手术中,具有定位准确、损伤少的优点,在切除致痫灶的同时能最大程度保护脑功能。     

大脑语言运动区手术中的神经电生理监测(附52例分析)

目的研究大脑语言运动区病变手术中神经电生理监测的方法。方法对52例病变位于语言运动区的病人采用术中唤醒全麻，联合监测皮质体感诱发电位、直接皮质电刺激、肌电图及脑电图，同时行显微手术切除病变。结果全切除42例，次全切除10例。术中记录到典型的皮质体感诱发电位38例，其中波形倒置23例，最大波幅者20例。皮质电刺激与体感诱发电位所判定的中央前回位置完全相符者33例．皮质体感诱发电位不典型者电刺激阳性5例。肌电图变化与肌肉运动相符者20例，肌电图出现反应波而未见肌肉运动者10例。脑电图示癫痫波20例，广泛性慢波40例。术后症状改善或消失47例。结论语言运动区病变采用术中唤醒全麻，联合监测皮质体感诱发电位、直接皮质电刺激、肌电图与脑电图等神经电生理指标，有助于在最大限度保留脑功能的前提下全切除病变．保证手术安全．明显减少术后功能障碍的发生。     

痫灶切除辅助脑皮层横行热灼治疗功能区顽固性癫痫

目的为了验证脑表浅层热灼治疗功能区癫痫的可行性及临床效果,我们首次应用功能区痫灶切除后,并辅助功能区皮层痫灶双极电凝热灼治疗.方法难治性癫痫124例,颞叶癫痫75例(包括原发52例;继发23例),非颞叶癫痫48例及1例功能性大脑半球切除者,以上病例均行病灶和痫灶切除.不能切除的功能区皮层痫灶行双极电凝脑表多处横行热灼.双极电凝输出功率为4μ,持续时间为1-2秒,脑表热灼间距为5mm.痫灶切除前后和功能区痫灶热灼前后均行皮层脑电监测.对术后早期和远期的表现进行了观察.结果功能区皮层热灼无SAH出现,脑软膜上血运不受热灼影响.病理证实浅表层(Ⅰ-Ⅱ)有不同程度的热凝损伤.其下Ⅲ层部分神经元变性,固缩,胶质增生不明显.而深部(Ⅳ-Ⅵ)神经元未受损.对64例术后病人随访6个月-3年,癫痫发作消失病人为51例;癫痫发作减少大于75%的病人为10例,癫痫发作减少大于50%的病人为4例,总有效率为97.5%.结论位于功能区不能切除的痫灶,辅以脑表热灼的治疗方式,可大大提高手术疗效.热灼治疗,它的优点在于安全、易行及治疗效果好,故可在临床推广应用.     

Epilepsy and anomalies of neuronal migration: MRI and clinical aspects

Neuronal migration disorders are the result of disturbed brain development. In such disorders, neurons are abnormally located. In diagnosing these conditions, magnetic resonance imaging is superior to any other imaging technique. This enables us to improve our knowledge of the clinical correlates of neuronal migration. With reference to migrational disorder, a retrospective study of all 303 patients with epileptic seizures referred for magnetic resonance imaging during a 3-year period was performed, 13 patients (aged 12-41, mean age 27) were identified. They represent 4.3% of the entire study group. Of the patients with known epilepsy, 6.7% and of the mentally retarded, 13.7% had migrational disorders. Four patients had schizencephaly as the dominant finding, one was classified as hemimegalencephaly, 2 had isolated heterotopias, and 6 had localized pachy- and/or poly-microgyria. The clinical pictures are complex. Ectopias of grey matter are recognised foci of epilepsy, but from an epileptological and a clinical viewpoint little attention has been given to these disorders. The present study shows that malmigration is not rare in epilepsy patients, especially not in the mentally retarded.     

Classification of methods in transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) and evolving strategy from historical approaches to contemporary innovations

Transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) encompasses all methods of non-invasive current application to the brain used in research and clinical practice. We present the first comprehensive and technical review, explaining the evolution of tES in both terminology and dosage over the past 100 years of research to present day. Current transcranial Pulsed Current Stimulation (tPCS) approaches such as Cranial Electrotherapy Stimulation (CES) descended from Electrosleep (ES) through Cranial Electro-stimulation Therapy (CET), Transcerebral Electrotherapy (TCET), and NeuroElectric Therapy (NET) while others like Transcutaneous Cranial Electrical Stimulation (TCES) descended from Electroanesthesia (EA) through Limoge, and Interferential Stimulation. Prior to a contemporary resurgence in interest, variations of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation were explored intermittently, including Polarizing current, Galvanic Vestibular Stimulation (GVS), and Transcranial Micropolarization. The development of these approaches alongside Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) and pharmacological developments are considered. Both the roots and unique features of contemporary approaches such as transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) and transcranial Random Noise Stimulation (tRNS) are discussed. Trends and incremental developments in electrode montage and waveform spanning decades are presented leading to the present day. Commercial devices, seminal conferences, and regulatory decisions are noted. We conclude with six rules on how increasing medical and technological sophistication may now be leveraged for broader success and adoption of tES.     

Hepatic Considerations in the Use of Antiepileptic Drugs

Summary: Virtually all of the major antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) can cause hepatotoxicity, although fatal hepatic reactions are rare. The mechanisms, incidences, and risk profiles for such reactions differ from drug to drug. With carbamazepine and phenytoin, hepatotoxicity may be due to drug hypersensitivity. Although the profiles of patients at risk have not been well-defined for these two antiepileptic drugs, it would appear from reports in the literature that older adolescents and adults are at higher risk than children of developing serious or fatal hepatotoxicity. Once hepatotoxicity develops, mortality rates are 10–38% with phenytoin and 25% for carbamazepine. The risk profile for valproate fatal hepatotoxicity has been more clearly defined. Those at primary risk of fatal hepatic dysfunction are children under the age of 2 years who are receiving multiple anticonvulsants and also have significant medical problems in addition to severe epilepsy. The risk is considerably lower for patients over the age of 2 years on valproate monotherapy. In contrast to the risk profile with other AEDs, adults receiving valproate as monotherapy have the lowest risk of hepatotoxicity. Fatal hepatic dysfunction coincident with valproate may be the result of aberrant drug metabolism. Concomitant use of AEDs that induce microsomal P450 enzymes (e.g., phenytoin and phenobarbital) may enhance the production of a toxic metabolite, and hence the greater risk of hepatotoxicity with polypharmacy.     

Vascular Malformations and Epilepsy: Clinical Considerations and Basic Mechanisms

Summary: Vascular malformations (VMs) are associated with epilepsy. The natural history of the various VMs, clinical presentation, and tendency to provoke epilepsy determine treatment strategies. Investigations have probed the mechanisms of epileptogenesis associated with these lesions. Electrophysiologic changes are associated with epileptogenic cortex adjacent to VMs. Putative pathophysiologic mechanisms of epileptogenesis include neuronal cell loss, glial proliferation and abnormal glial physiology, altered neurotransmitter levels, free radical formation, and aberrant second messenger physiology.     

Neonatal Seizures: Problems in Diagnosis and Classification

Summary: The clinical identification of neonatal seizures is critical for the recognition of brain dysfunction; however, diagnosis is often difficult because of the poorly organized and varied nature of these behaviors. Current classification systems are limited in their ability to communicate motor, autonomic, and electroencephalo-graphic features of seizures precisely and to provide a basis for uniform effective diagnosis, therapy, and determination of prognosis. Recent investigations of neonates, utilizing bedside electroencephalographic/polygraphic/ video monitoring techniques, have provided the basis for improved diagnosis and classification of seizures in the newborn. These studies have demonstrated that not all clinical phenomena currently considered to be seizures require electrocortical epileptiform activity for their initiation or elaboration. In addition, the specific clinical character of the phenomena considered to be seizures, the clinical state of the infant, and the character of the EEG indicate the probable pathophysiological mechanisms involved and suggest probable etiologies, prognosis, and therapy. Similarities between animal models that demonstrate reflex physiology and neonates with motor automatisms and tonic posturing suggest that these clinical behaviors may not be epileptic in origin but, rather, primitive movements of progression and posture mediated by brainstem mechanisms. Although not all clinical behaviors currently considered to be neonatal seizures may have similar pathophysiological mechanisms, they are clinically significant because they all indicate brain dysfunction.     

Valproate Monotherapy in the Management of Generalized and Partial Seizures

Summary: For decades, therapeutic tradition has promoted the concept of polypharmacy in the management of epilepsy. In recent years, however, studies have shown that, for most patients, monotherapy can provide comparable or better seizure control than administration of multiple anticonvulsants, while diminishing the potential for adverse reactions, drug interactions, and poor compliance. Valproate is an important monotherapeutic agent that is highly effective in the control of idiopathic primary and secondarily generalized epilepsies, and partial seizures that do not generalize. Comparative studies have found that valproate is at least as effective as phenytoin and carbamazepine in the treatment of generalized and partial seizures. Given the similar efficacy, other factors such as pharmacokinetics and side effects may therefore determine anticonvulsant selection for monotherapy.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy and Utilization in Children

Summary: Carbamazepine is effective for preventing partial and generalized tonic-clonic seizures in children. Although absence epilepsies are more common in children than adults, an estimated 80% of children with epilepsy have seizure types or epilepsies that are potentially responsive to carbamazepine. The differential diagnosis of ictal staring is an especially important issue in children because absence and atypical absence seizures are more prevalent in children than adults. Age-related pharmacokinetic differences and drug interactions are major considerations in children. On average, children have higher clearance rates of carbamazepine, shorter half-lives, and higher ratios of carbamazepine-10, 11-epoxide to carbamazepine than adults. In addition, children with severe epilepsy are more likely to require multiple-drug therapy, which can lead to complex drug interactions. When carbamazepine is administered along with valproate, drug protein binding interactions can cause intermittent side effects.     

Un nouveau cadre conceptuel de travail pour la psychiatrie

In an attempt to place psychiatric thinking and the training of future psychiatrists more centrally into the context of modern biology, the author outlines the beginnings of a new intellectual framework for psychiatry that derives from current biological thinking about the relationship of mind to brain. The purpose of this framework is twofold. First, it is designed to emphasize that the professional requirements for future psychiatrists will demand a greater knowledge of the structure and functioning of the brain than is currently available in most training programs. Second, it is designed to illustrate that the unique domain which psychiatry occupies within academic medicine, the analysis of the interaction between social and biological determinants of behavior, can best be studied by also having a full understanding of the biological components of behavior.