Imaging of gastrointestinal and abdominal tuberculosis

This article discusses the range of manifestations of tuberculosis (TB) of the abdomen, including involvement of the gastrointestinal tract, the peritoneum, mesentery, omentum, abdominal lymph nodes, solid abdominal organs, the genital system and the abdominal aorta. Abdominal TB is a diagnostic challenge, particularly when pulmonary TB is absent. It may mimic many other abdominal diseases, both clinically and radiologically. An early correct diagnosis, however, is important in order to ensure proper treatment and a favorable outcome. Modern imaging is a cornerstone in the early diagnosis of abdominal TB and may prevent unnecessary morbidity and mortality. Generally, CT appears to be the imaging modality of choice in the detection and assessment of abdominal tuberculosis, other than gastrointestinal TB. Barium studies remain superior for demonstrating mucosal intestinal lesions. Ultrasound may be used for follow-up to monitor therapy response. The diagnosis of abdominal TB should be considered if suggestive imaging findings are found in patients with a high index of suspicion.     

Intra-abdominal tuberculous peritonitis

We report the case of a 15-year-old boy suffering from progressive dyspnea on exertion and painful abdominal protrusion. Final diagnosis of intra-abdominal tuberculosis (TB), including lymphadenopathy and abdominal abscess formation, was made following elective laparotomy. This type of disease is a rare manifestation of extrapulmonary tuberculosis. The imaging findings in unenhanced and contrast-enhanced MRI and laparoscopic images are presented. Differential diagnosis of abdominal abscess formation and other fungal or bacteriological infections, as well as the imaging findings of this type of lesion, are discussed. This case demonstrates that atypical manifestation of TB may remain unrecognized; thus, awareness of this kind of manifestation of tuberculosis may prevent patients from being subjected to inappropriate therapies.     

Imaging Spectrum of Female Genital Tuberculosis: A Comprehensive Review

Female genital tuberculosis is a relatively uncommon form of extrapulmonary tuberculosis that is under-reported and under-recognized. The early course of the disease has fewer manifestations, resulting in late presentation with grave complications like infertility and ectopic pregnancy. Also, difficulty in isolation of the causative bacteria further delays the diagnosis. The radiologist should be well versed with imaging findings of female genital TB to help the clinicians to initiate prompt treatment. This review shall cover imaging findings of female genital TB involving fallopian tubes, uterus, ovaries, cervix, vagina, and vulva on different imaging modalities. Fallopian tubes are almost always involved in genital TB followed by uterus and ovaries. Hysterosalpingogram and ultrasound can best detect tubercular changes in fallopian tubes and uterus whereas cross-sectional imaging is essential for the diagnosis of ovarian or peritoneal TB as they closely mimic malignancy. Cervical, vaginal, or vulval TB produces nonspecific changes and histopathological diagnosis is required for confirmation of the diagnoses. Close differential diagnosis on imaging like malignancy or pelvic inflammatory disease, are also discussed with a brief discussion of the pathogenesis.     

Abdominal tuberculosis: imaging features

Radiological findings of abdominal tuberculosis can mimic those of many different diseases. A high level of suspicion is required, especially in high-risk population. In this article, we will describe barium studies, ultrasound (US) and computed tomography (CT) findings of abdominal tuberculosis (TB), with emphasis in the latest. We will illustrate CT findings that can help in the diagnosis of abdominal tuberculosis and describe imaging features that differentiate it from other inflammatory and neoplastic diseases, particularly lymphoma and Crohn's disease. As tuberculosis can affect any organ in the abdomen, emphasis is placed to ileocecal involvement, lymphadenopathy, peritonitis and solid organ disease (liver, spleen and pancreas). A positive culture or hystologic analysis of biopsy is still required in many patients for definitive diagnosis. Learning objectives:     

Tuberculosis arthritis and tenosynovitis

The incidence of extrapulmonary tuberculosis (TB) has been rising due to the increasing number of immunosuppressed patients. Musculoskeletal system accounts for 25% of extrapulmonary TB. Most of the musculoskeletal TB involves the spine. TB of peripheral joints and tendons occur infrequently, but if untreated, it can cause serious joint and tendon destruction as well as spread of the infection to the surrounding bursa, muscle, and other soft tissues. The diagnosis of TB of joints and tendons is difficult due to the nonspecific clinical manifestations and imaging features. Concurrent active pulmonary TB is present in <50% of the patients. A positive chest radiographic finding or a positive tuberculin test supports the diagnosis, but negative results do not exclude diagnosis. Although imaging features of TB of joints and tendons are nonspecific, certain findings such as relatively preserved joint space, juxta-articular osteoporosis, cold abscesses, para-articular soft tissue calcification, and rice bodies are suggestive of TB infection. Familiarity with these imaging features can help in making an early diagnosis and facilitating proper management.     

TB or not TB: A comprehensive review of imaging manifestations of abdominal tuberculosis and its mimics

The ever-growing prevalence of tuberculosis is a cause for concern among both developing and developed countries. Abdominal tuberculosis is the most common site of extrapulmonary tuberculosis and involves almost all of the visceral organs. Clinical presentation of abdominal tuberculosis is often non-specific. Thus, having a high index of clinical suspicion is necessary to aide early diagnosis and guide prompt initiation of appropriate treatment. In this review, we focus on the entire spectrum of abdominal tuberculosis and other diseases mimicking it with an emphasis on their imaging findings.     

Tuberculous epididymitis associated with abdominal lymphadenopathy (2004:1b)

Although the predominant form of tuberculosis is pulmonary disease, an increasing number of cases with extra-pulmonary involvement have been reported. The diagnosis of extra-pulmonary tuberculosis is often difficult because of its protean clinical manifestations and non-specific laboratory findings. Abdominal lymph node involvement may be present alone or in combination with involvement of the gastrointestinal tract, peritoneum, and solid viscera. Tuberculous epididymitis occurs sporadically and represents a specific secondary subacute or chronic inflammatory process involving the epididymis. We present the imaging findings in a patient with tuberculous epididymitis associated with abdominal tuberculous lymphadenopathy.     

Tuberculosis of the central nervous system: overview of neuroradiological findings

This article presents the range of manifestations of tuberculosis (TB) of the craniospinal axis. Central nervous system (CNS) infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis occurs either in a diffuse form as basal exudative leptomeningitis or in a localized form as tuberculoma, abscess, or cerebritis. In addition to an extensive review of computed tomography and magnetic resonance features, the pathogenesis and the relevant clinical setting are discussed. Modern imaging is a cornerstone in the early diagnosis of CNS tuberculosis and may prevent unnecessary morbidity and mortality. Contrast-enhanced MR imaging is generally considered as the modality of choice in the detection and assessment of CNS tuberculosis.     

Neonatal gastrointestinal imaging

Radiological imaging is an important part of the evaluation and management of neonates with suspected anomalies of the gastrointestinal tract. Clinical presentation is often non-specific, commonly with abdominal distension and vomiting for which the underlying cause may or may not be clinically apparent. In a proportion of patients, the clinical assessment alone may suffice in providing the diagnosis and no further imaging is necessary. The reader must have an understanding of the normal radiographic appearances of the gastrointestinal tract in neonates and appreciate normal variants and differences to adults. In certain cases, the abdominal radiograph alone is diagnostic. In others, sonography and contrast studies are useful adjunct investigations and the indications for CT and MRI are few, but specific. Appropriate radiological investigation will help to establish the diagnosis and guide surgical intervention whilst also avoiding unnecessary radiation. Some of the conditions require transfer to specialist paediatric institutions for care. Thus, in some circumstances it is appropriate for imaging to be delayed and performed at the specialist centre with early referral often essential for the continued well being of the child.     

CT of acute gastrointestinal disorders

The evaluation of acute gastrointestinal disorders is a challenging task for both the clinician and the radiologist. Such disorders frequently are nonspecific in their presentation, often mimicking a variety of other acute abdominal disorders. No imaging test can provide a specific diagnosis in all circumstances. The choice of the initial imaging study for a particular presentation involves a compromise between various factors, including availability, safety, cost, clinical stability of the patient, the effect on other diagnostic tests and therapeutic maneuvers that may need to be performed, and the likelihood that the imaging method will provide at least some information localizing and characterizing the disorder. CT is not inexpensive, nor is it as rapidly performed as plain film radiography. Its spatial resolution limits its applicability in detection of gastrointestinal mucosal disease, fistulous tracts, and small vessel abnormalities. On the other hand, it is a powerful method to evaluate the full extraluminal extent of gastrointestinal abnormalities and to detect abnormalities of extraenteric organs and tissues. In some circumstances, such as trauma and suspected abdominal abscess, CT should probably be the initial imaging test. Also, when other imaging tests are nonrevealing, CT can provide valuable information and often suggest a clinically unsuspected gastrointestinal abnormality.     

CT appearances of abdominal tuberculosis

The purpose of this article is to review and illustrate the spectrum of computed tomography (CT) appearances of abdominal tuberculosis. Tuberculosis can affect any organ or tissue in the abdomen, and can be mistaken for other inflammatory or neoplastic conditions. The most common sites of tuberculosis in the abdomen include lymph nodes, genitourinary tract, peritoneal cavity and gastrointestinal tract. The liver, spleen, biliary tract, pancreas and adrenals are rarely affected, but are more likely in HIV-seropositive patients and in miliary tuberculosis. This article should alert the radiologist to consider abdominal tuberculosis in the correct clinical setting to ensure timely diagnosis and enable appropriate treatment.     

Imaging of hepatic infections

Imaging plays a significant role in the detection, characterization and treatment of hepatic infections. Infectious diseases of the liver include pyogenic and amoebic abscesses and parasitic, fungal, viral and granulomatous infections. With increases in worldwide travel, immunosuppression and changing population demographics, identification of cases of hepatic infection is becoming more common in daily practice. Knowledge of the imaging features seen with hepatic infections can assist in early diagnosis and timely initiation of appropriate therapy. This review presents the imaging appearances of hepatic infections, emphasizing specific features that may contribute to the diagnosis. Examples of the imaging findings seen with pyogenic and amoebic abscesses, infection with Echinococcus granulosus (Hydatid), schistosomiasis, candidiasis and tuberculosis (TB) are presented.     

Tuberculous osteomyelitis and spondylodiscitis

Tuberculosis (TB) is no longer a disease limited to developing nations and is still a major cause of significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. The indolent clinical presentation, emergence of multidrug-resistant mycobacteria, and association with human immunodeficiency virus infection poses obstacles for early diagnosis and management. Compared with the other forms of TB, musculoskeletal involvement is relatively rare. Tuberculous spondylitis is the most common form of musculoskeletal TB and accounts for ~50% of cases. Extraspinal musculoskeletal TB shows a predilection for large weightbearing joints, long bones, and the skull. This article reviews the radiologic features of diverse forms of osseous TB and the diagnostic value of the different imaging techniques. It also reviews the imaging differential diagnoses, including other infections and malignancies/metastases. Conventional radiography is of key value in the diagnosis of musculoskeletal TB. Computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and bone scintigraphy also play key roles in the early detection of disease and in demonstrating the extent of disease process and soft tissue involvement. Because delay in treatment significantly reduces the cure rate and increases the rate of complications and morbidity, early radiological diagnosis of TB is of paramount importance for appropriate management.     

Tuberculosis in children

Epidemiology of tuberculosis (TB) in childhood is closely related to TB in adults. Serious manifestations are often observed in children with TB. Immunological immaturity and social dependence facilitate the spread of infection. Paediatricians account in practise both primary TB, with hilar lymphadenopathy, and subacute or chronic pulmonary complications, in TB disease. Children appear to have a higher risk of having extrapulmonary TB involving any organ. The diagnosis of tuberculosis reactivation/re-infection, is based in the isolation of the agent in the sputum . Primary TB is difficult to diagnose, usually established by indirect signs of low epidemiological specificity, symptoms, chest radiography and the intracutaneous tuberculin test. In this context, one can understand the importance of correct interpretation of the chest radiograph. Chest CT is recommended if the chest radiograph is equivocal. In addition, an overview of extrapulmonary cases of TB - of the spine, bone and lymph nodes - including the role of other imaging modalities (Us and MR) will be presented .     

Abdominal involvement in tuberculosis

Rising incidence of disseminated and extrapulmonary tuberculosis (TB), especially in immunocompromised hosts and patients with multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis, has resulted in an increase of unusual clinical and radiographic presentations of TB. With CT being a common part of emergency room (ER) evaluation of abdominal pain, it is imperative that radiologists be able to recognize abdominal presentations of TB. We discuss and illustrate typical and less common CT manifestations of tuberculosis in the abdomen to help ER radiologists in this task. Electronic Publication     

Multifocal skeletal tuberculosis involving the lumbar spine and a sacroiliac joint: MR imaging findings

Sacroiliac joint tuberculosis is rare; its coexistence with vertebral tuberculosis is even rarer, with only a few such patients reported in the literature. We present magnetic resonance (MR) imaging findings of a patient with vertebral and sacroiliac joint tuberculosis, who had paravertebral, iliopsoas, and buttock abscesses accompanied by a gluteal pus-draining sinus tract. MR imaging is the most sensitive and specific imaging modality for diagnosing sacroiliitis at its early stage. Sacroiliac joint tuberculosis can reach advanced stages with extensive joint destruction and periarticular abscesses if diagnosis and treatment are delayed. A high index of clinical suspicion is required for an early diagnosis. The addition of a coronal SPIR T2-weighted sequence to the routine MR imaging evaluation of patients studied for lumbar disk disease may be useful for recognizing sacroiliac joint pathology at an earlier stage.     

Abdominal amyloidosis: spectrum of radiological findings

Amyloidosis is a disease characterized by the deposition of fibrillar protein amyloid of beta-structure in organs or tissues. It is usually classified as either a primary disease or secondary to a co-existent condition, such as rheumatoid arthritis, tuberculosis, or neoplasm (particularly multiple myeloma or renal cell carcinoma). Amyloid protein deposition can be seen in a variety of organs though it occurs with higher frequency in the gastrointestinal tract, kidney, and heart. Amyloidosis can have a wide spectrum of manifestations in nearly every abdominal organ. Some of these, for example, multiple cystic submucosal masses of the stomach, amyloidosis of the gallbladder, and dirty soft tissue infiltration of the subcutaneous fat, have not yet been covered in the radiological literature. The combination of various imaging techniques and the identification of characteristic computed tomography (CT) hepatic features may help in the differentiation of amyloidosis from other infiltrative diseases; however, confirmative diagnosis can usually only be achieved by tissue biopsy.     

Imaging of musculoskeletal and spinal tuberculosis

The diagnosis of tuberculosis of the musculoskeletal system is difficult for many reasons. As Walker states, to diagnose tuberculosis one must consider the possibility. The uncommonness of osteoarticular MTb results in clinician inexperience, which leads to overlooking the diagnosis. Subtle early manifestations may elude detection. Negative skin tests and normal chest films do not exclude the consideration of tuberculosis. The most conclusive means of reaching the diagnosis (biopsy and culture) necessitate invasive procedures that are not always definitive, and may require repeated attempts. Management and surgical decisions, however, rely on prompt diagnosis; diagnostic delay has prognostic implications and results in significant morbidity. Musculoskeletal tuberculosis produces no pathognomonic imaging signs, and in advanced stages mimics other disease processes. Despite these difficulties, the diagnostician's goal is to catch the disease as early as possible, because antibiotic treatment can lead to resolution and obviate more radical management. The radiologist must be aware of the groups at greatest risk, and typical and atypical presentations at imaging. The eventual eradication of MTb is conceivable, although not presently within our grasp. Maintaining reasonable suspicion and developing cognizance of the patterns of presentation allow the radiologist to diagnose efficiently the patient who presents with osteoarticular tuberculosis.     

Ultrasonographic diagnosis in abdominal tuberculosis

Sonographic findings were retrospectively analysed in 39 patients with proven abdominal tuberculosis (TB). The patients were treated over 15 years at a major teaching hospital, Mubarak Al-Kabber Hospital, in Kuwait. The findings included clear or complex ascites with fine strands, loculations and debris. The other findings were lymphadenopathy, bowel wall thickening, omental mass, focal lesions in the liver and spleen and psoas abscess. The sonographic findings in abdominal TB are not specific but may give valuable information to prevent unnecessary laparotomy.     

COVID-19 and pulmonary tuberculosis – A diagnostic dilemma

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is an infectious disease caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Meanwhile, pulmonary tuberculosis(TB) is one of the most common infective lung diseases in developing nations. The concurrence of pulmonary TB and COVID-19 can lead to poor prognosis, owing to the pre-existing lung damage caused by TB. Case presentation: We describe the imaging findings in 3 cases of COVID-19 pneumonia with co-existing pulmonary TB on HRCT thorax. The concurrence of COVID-19 and pulmonary TB can be a diagnostic dilemma. Correct diagnosis and prompt management is imperative to reduce mortality and morbidity. Hence it is pertinent for imaging departments to identify and report these distinct entities when presenting in conjunction.