Significant decreasing trend in human dietary exposure to PCDD/PCDFs and PCBs in Catalonia, Spain

The concentrations of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/PCDFs), and 18 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were determined in samples of foodstuffs widely consumed by the population of Catalonia, Spain. The dietary intake of PCDD/PCDFs and dioxin-like (DL)-PCBs was subsequently estimated for the population of this Spanish region. These results were compared with those of a previous survey performed during 2000. For PCDD/PCDFs, the highest WHO-TEQ values corresponded to oils and fats (0.223 ng/kg), followed by fish and seafood (0.131 ng/kg) and dairy products (0.057 ng/kg), while the lowest levels were found in fruits (0.003 ng/kg), as well as in vegetables and milk (0.009 ng/kg). For DL-PCBs the highest WHO-TEQ values corresponded to the groups of fish and seafood (0.761 ng/kg) followed by oils and fats (0.169 ng/kg), and dairy products (0.039 ng/kg), while the lowest values were observed in fruits (0.004 ng/kg), and vegetables (0.005 ng/kg) and tubers (0.006 ng/kg). The current dietary intakes of PCDD/PCDFs, DL-PCBs, and PCDD/PCDFs plus DL-PCBs were estimated to be 25.7, 52.4, and 78.1 pg WHO-TEQ/day vs. 95.4, 150.1, and 245.5 pg WHO-TEQ/day found in our previous survey. It means reductions of 73%, 65%, and 68%, for PCDD/PCDFs, DL-PCBs, and PCDD/PCDFs plus DL-PCBs, respectively. The current estimated intake for an adult male, 1.12 pg WHO-TEQ/kg body weight per day, is lower than most intakes recently reported in a number of countries over the world.     

Human uptake of persistent chemicals from contaminated soil: PCDD/Fs and PCBs

Trace amounts of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins/furans (PCDD/Fs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are ubiquitous in the environment. Because of industrial activity, other human activities, and accidents, higher concentrations of these chemicals may be present in soil, in residential and recreational areas. Human uptake of these chemicals from such soils has been assumed by regulators, and people contacting such soils may be concerned about potential adverse health effects. Accordingly, clean up levels have been set by state and federal agencies. Whether and to what extent humans actually take up these chemicals from soil is the focus of this review. Since humans are also exposed to PCDD/Fs and PCBs in food and air, their concentrations in these media are presented. We find that their presence in soils is unlikely to increase human body burdens.     

Evolution of the dietary exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Catalonia, Spain

The concentrations of 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were determined in samples of foodstuffs widely consumed by the population of Catalonia, Spain. All samples were randomly acquired in 12 cities of Catalonia between March and June of 2006, and analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The dietary intake of total and carcinogenic PAHs was estimated for various age/gender groups of population. In order to determine the temporal trend on the dietary exposure to PAHs, the current results were compared with those of a previous survey (2000). The highest individual PAH levels corresponded to phenanthrene (29.66mug/kg), naphthalene (25.87mug/kg) and fluoroanthene (13.66mug/kg), while the lowest levels were benzo[a]pyrene (1.28mug/kg), benzo[k]fluoranthene (1.31mug/kg) and indeno[1,2,3-c,d]pyrene (1.44mug/kg). According to food groups, the highest levels of total PAHs were detected in meat and meat products (25.56mug/kg), oils and fats (23.48mug/kg), and cereals (20.44mug/kg). For an average male adult (70-kg body weight), the current dietary intake of the sum of PAHs was higher (12.0mug/day) than that found in our 2000 survey (8.4mug/day).     

Human exposure to PCDD/Fs and PCBs through consumption of fish and seafood in Catalonia (Spain): Temporal trend

The concentrations of PCDD/Fs and 18 PCBs (DL- and NDL-) were analyzed in 16 fish and seafood species widely consumed in Catalonia (Spain). The exposure of these pollutants was subsequently estimated according to various groups of population. The concentrations of PCDD/Fs and PCBs showed an important decrease in relation to the baseline study (2000) and our last survey (2008). Sardine and red mullet were the species showing the highest pollutant concentrations, while canned tuna and cuttlefish presented the lowest levels. Sardine was the main contributor to the exposure of PCDD/Fs and PCBs. In contrast, swordfish was the species with the lowest contribution to the exposure of PCDD/Fs, DL-PCBs, and PCDD/Fs+DL-PCBs, while clam was the minor contributor for NDL-PCBs and total PCBs. For all groups of population, the current intakes of PCDD/Fs and PCBs were lower than the TDI (1–4 pg WHO-TEQ/kg body weight/day), being children the group with the highest exposure. However, this exposure should not mean a health risk for this group of population. The current intake of PCDD/Fs and PCBs through fish and seafood consumption was similar or even lower than most values reported in recent studies all over the world.     

Human exposure to PBDEs through the diet in Catalonia, Spain: temporal trend. A review of recent literature on dietary PBDE intake

The mean concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) (sum tetra- to octaBDEs) were determined in samples of foodstuffs widely consumed by the population of Catalonia, Northeast Spain. The following six tetra-through heptabrominated congeners were also individually analyzed: PBDEs 47, 99, 100, 153, 154 and 183. Food samples were randomly acquired in 12 cities of Catalonia between March and June of 2006. The dietary intake of PBDEs was estimated for the population of this region. In order to determine the temporal trend on the exposure to PBDEs through the diet, the results were compared with those of a previous survey performed during 2000. The highest concentration of total PBDEs was found in fish and shellfish (563.9 ng/kg of wet weight), followed by oils and fats (359.3 ng/kg ww), and bakery products (98.8 ng/kg ww). Among six individually analyzed congeners, for most food groups BDE-47 and BDE-99 showed the highest levels. The dietary intake of PBDEs for a standard male adult of 70 kg body weight was 75.4 ng/day (or 1.1 ng/kg body weight/day, assuming ND = LOD/2). On a body weight basis, it means a decrease of 23% with respect to the daily intake of the 2000 survey (97.3 ng/day or 1.4 ng/kg/body weight/day). Finally, the current PBDE intake is compared with the results of recent studies on the dietary intake of PBDEs performed in various European, North American, and Asian countries.     

Intake of chemical contaminants through fish and seafood consumption by children of Catalonia, Spain: health risks.

The intake of arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polychlorinated naphthalenes (PCNs), polybrominated diphenylethers (PBDEs), polychlorinated diphenylethers (PCDEs), hexachlorobenzene, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons through fish and seafood consumption by children of Catalonia, Spain, was assessed. In 2005, samples of the 14 most consumed marine species in Catalonia were randomly acquired in various cities of the country. Analysis of the above chemical contaminants were determined according to the appropriate analytical techniques and the daily intakes were estimated. For most pollutants, intake was higher in boys than in girls. Average exposure of children to contaminants through fish and seafood consumption did not exceed the respective tolerable daily intake of those pollutants for which it has been already established (metals, PCDD/Fs plus dioxin-like PCBs, HCB, and PAHs). In relation to body weight, intake by children of most contaminants was higher than that found for other age groups of the general population of Catalonia.     

Assessment of the exposure to ochratoxin A in the province of Lleida,Spain

Exposure to ochratoxin A (OTA) of 279 blood donors of nine localities of the province of Lleida (Spain) was assessed. OTA levels were detected in the blood plasma of the participants by HPLC-fluorescence detection with previous clean-up of the samples by immunoaffinity columns. Limit of detection was 0.075 ng/mL. Participants answered a questionnaire on consumption frequency of foods possibly contaminated with OTA. Foodstuffs were grouped: cereals and derived products, dried fruits and derived products, cacao and derived products, grape juice, wine, beer and coffee. The range of positive samples was 0.11–8.68 ng/mL and the median was 0.54 ng/mL. No differences were found between OTA plasma levels in men and women, neither in the different localities, but there were significant differences among three age groups. Highest consumed foods were cereals and derived products, followed by beer and wine. No correlation was found between food consumption and OTA plasma levels. OTA daily intake was estimated based on OTA plasma concentrations and on the food consumption data combined with food contamination data taken from the literature. Mean values were 1.69 and 1.96 ng/kg body weight/day, respectively. These values are below the latest proposed tolerable daily intake of 14 ng/kg body weight/day.     

Dietary exposure to dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs in The Netherlands anno 2004

In this study, representative occurrence data for PCDD/Fs and dioxin-like PCBs in food were obtained and used to estimate dietary exposure of the Dutch population. Food composite samples were analyzed as well as single fish and vegetables samples. Total dioxin concentrations in animal products ranged from 0.05 pg TEQ/g product in poultry to 2.5 pg TEQ/g product (using TEF(2006)) in fish (shrimp), with 0.12pg TEQ/g product being the lowest concentrations measured in fish (tuna). In vegetable products, concentrations ranged from 0.00002 pg TEQ/g product (white kale) to 0.19 pg TEQ/g (oils and fats). A long-term dietary exposure distribution was calculated using Monte Carlo Risk Assessment software. The lower bound median exposure of the Dutch population to PCDD/Fs and dioxin-like PCBs was estimated at 0.8 pg WHO-TEQ/kgbw/d, half of which were dioxin-like PCBs. Dairy was the main source (38%) due to its high consumption. Time-trend analysis shows that the exposure to dioxins has further decreased by 35% over the past five years. This is due to lower levels of dioxin-like compounds in most of the foods, mainly influenced by lower levels in meat and milk. The use of the new TEFs gives an exposure reduction of 10% with respect to TEF(1998). Still, 4% of the Dutch population exceeds the exposure limit of 14 pg/kgbw/week as set by the EU.     

Human dietary exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: A review of the scientific literature

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a group of over 200 different organic compounds that are mainly formed as the result of pyrolytic processes. For the general population, a number of studies have shown that, as for other environmental organic contaminants, the major route of exposure to PAHs is through food consumption. In this paper, the scientific literature concerning the concentrations of PAHs in food and the human dietary intake of these compounds, is reviewed. Unexpectedly, we have detected a considerable lack of scientific papers for countries such as Australia, Canada, Germany, or Japan, among many others, which seems rather unusual given the important scientific and social interest on the knowledge of the health risks of human exposure to environmental pollutants. The data from countries for which the human dietary intake of PAHs is available, show important differences among them, which would be explained by a number of factors, being probably the most important, the different methodologies used in the respective surveys. Regarding the influence of cooking on the levels of PAHs in foodstuffs, and the consequent intake, we conclude that it depends, not only on the particular cooking process, but even more on the specific characteristics of the respective food items.     

Exposure to perfluorinated compounds in Catalonia,Spain, through consumption of various raw and cooked foodstuffs,including packaged food

In this study, the role that some food processing and packaging might play as a source of perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) through the diet was assessed. The levels of PFCs were determined in composite samples of veal steak (raw, grilled, and fried), pork loin (raw, grilled, and fried), chicken breast (raw, grilled, and fried), black pudding (uncooked), liver lamb (raw), marinated salmon (home-made and packaged), lettuce (fresh and packaged), pate of pork liver, foie gras of duck, frankfurt, sausages, chicken nuggets (fried), and common salt. Among the 11 PFCs analyzed, only PFHxS, PFOS, PFHxA, and PFOA were detected in at least one composite sample, while the levels of the remaining PFCs (PFBuS, PFHpA, PFNA, PFDA, PFUnDA, and PFDoDA) were under their respective detection limits. PFOS was the compound most frequently detected, being found in 8 of the 20 food items analyzed, while PFHxA was detected in samples of raw veal, chicken nuggets, frankfurt, sausages, and packaged lettuce. According to the results of the present study, it is not sufficiently clear if cooking with non-stick cookware, or packaging some foods, could contribute to a higher human exposure to PFCs.     

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in food and human dietary exposure: a review of the recent scientific literature

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are a class of brominated flame retardants (BFRs) used to protect people from fires by reducing the flammability of combustible materials. In recent years, PBDEs have become widespread environmental pollutants, while body burden in the general population has been increasing. A number of studies have shown that, as for other persistent organic pollutants, dietary intake is one of the main routes of human exposure to PBDEs. The most recent scientific literature concerning the levels of PBDEs in foodstuffs and the human dietary exposure to these BFRs are here reviewed. It has been noted that the available information on human total daily intake through food consumption is basically limited to a number of European countries, USA, China, and Japan. In spite of the considerable methodological differences among studies, the results show notable coincidences such as the important contribution to the sum of total PBDEs of some congeners such as BDEs 47, 49, 99 and 209, the comparatively high contribution of fish and seafood, and dairy products, and the probably limited human health risks derived from dietary exposure to PBDEs. Various issues directly related to human exposure to PBDEs through the diet still need investigation.     

Occurrence and human exposure of PCDD/Fs and dioxin-like PCBs in house dust from Busan, Korea: Comparison with seafood consumption

Information on human exposure to polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (DL-PCBs) via dust ingestion is scarce. Concentrations of PCDD/Fs and DL-PCBs were determined in house dust collected from Korea, to investigate the occurrence and human exposure to these contaminants. The concentrations of total toxic equivalents (TEQs) in our samples ranged from 0.22 to 11.6 (median: 1.73) pg TEQ/g dry weight, which were lower than those found in other countries. The predominant homologue or congener was octachlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin and furan (OCDD/F) in all the samples, suggesting a possibility of multiple sources (e.g. combustion process, textiles and cigarette smoke) of PCDD/Fs in indoor environments. Estimated daily intakes (EDIs) of total TEQs via dust ingestion were 0.056 pg TEQ/day for adults (>20 years) and 0.14 pg TEQ/day for toddlers (<2 years), which were 2–3 orders of magnitude lower than the EDIs of total TEQs via seafood consumption. Our results suggest that dust ingestion could be negligible to the total TEQ exposures for the Korean population. This is the first study on human exposure of PCDD/Fs and DL-PCBs via dust ingestion in the Korean population.     

Temporal trend of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin/polychlorinated dibenzofuran and dioxin like-polychlorinated biphenyl concentrations in food from Taiwan markets during 2004–2012

The levels of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin (PCDD) and polychlorinated dibenzofuran (PCDF) or polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) in foodstuffs have decreased over the past decade in many countries. However, the trend for the levels of these compounds in foodstuffs in Taiwan remains unknown. In this study, we compared the distribution of PCDD/F and PCB in nine foodstuff categories acquired from Taiwan markets from 2004 to 2012. The levels expressed as World Health Organization toxic equivalents (WHO-TEQs) in the different foodstuffs tested were as follows: fish, average 0.463 pg WHO₉₈-TEQ/g sample > seafood, 0.163 pg WHO₉₈-TEQ/g > eggs, 0.150 pg WHO₉₈-TEQ/g > oils, 0.126 pg WHO₉₈-TEQ/g > meats, 0.095 pg WHO₉₈-TEQ/g > dairy products, 0.054 pg WHO₉₈-TEQ/g > cereals, 0.017 pg WHO₉₈-TEQ/g > vegetables, 0.013 pg WHO₉₈-TEQ/g > fruits, 0.009 pg WHO₉₈-TEQ/g. Levels were particularly high in crab (average: 0.6 pg WHO₉₈-TEQ/g sample (1.243 pg WHO₉₈-TEQ/g sample) and large marine fish (0.6). In Taiwan, a decreasing trend of PCDD/Fs or dioxin-like PCBs (dl-PCBs) was observed in meat, dairy, eggs, and vegetables, whereas an elevated trend was observed in cereals or the levels were nearly equal in fruits and oils at alternative time shift. Dl-PCBs contributed to 60–65% toxicity equivalence levels in fish and seafood, but only to 13–40% in meat and cereal samples. The decreasing trend was consistent with the results in other countries; however, the trends in cereals, fruits, and oils were in contrast to previous results reported in other countries. Cereals and fruits are important crops in southern Taiwan, and the local pollution generated by industries or incinerators may seriously affect the distribution of PCDD/Fs and dl-PCBs. To ensure food safety, a risk assessment for residents living in different areas should be adopted for all food categories simultaneously in the future.     

Polychlorinated biphenyls in clams Tapes philippinarum cultured in the Venice Lagoon (Italy): contamination levels and dietary exposure assessment.

Total polychlorinated biphenyl (SigmaPCB) concentrations calculated as the sum of 21 and the toxicity equivalent (TEQ) of dioxin-like PCBs calculated on the basis of the toxic equivalent factors were assessed in Manila clams Tapes philippinarum cultured in the Venice Lagoon. The concentrations showed a predominance of hexa-chlorobiphenyls followed by penta-, hepta-, tetra- and tri-chlorobiphenyls. The highest levels of SigmaPCB detected were 4.01 ng/g, 2.71 ng/g and 2.68 ng/g wet weight at a southern lagoon site and two northern lagoon sites, respectively. There was a significant differentiation in toxicity levels between culture sites. The highest value was 0.239 pg TEQ/g at a southern lagoon site; the lowest was 0.004 pg TEQ/g at a central lagoon site.     

Dietary exposure to essential and toxic trace elements from a Total diet study in an adult Lebanese urban population

This study assesses, by the Total diet study approach, the adequacy of micronutrient intake (Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Zn) and the dietary exposure of a Lebanese adult urban population to two toxic elements (Cd, Pb). The foods that made up the average ‘total diet’ were derived from a previous individual consumption survey. A total of 1215 individual foods were collected, prepared and cooked prior to analysis. Analytical quantification was performed using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Average daily intakes of Co (11.4 μg/day), Cu (1104.19 μg/day), Fe (13.00 mg/day), Mn (2.04 mg/day), Ni (126.27 μg/day) and Zn (10.97 mg/day) were below toxicological reference values and were found to satisfy nutritional recommendations, except for manganese in men and iron in women. Average dietary exposure to Pb and Cd represented 3.2% and 21.7% of the respective provisional tolerable weekly intakes. Estimates of dietary intakes of iron appeared to be inadequate for 63% of adult women. These findings should constitute a current measure of assessing the adequacy and safety of foods consumed in Lebanon and may be a basis for future monitoring studies.     

Level of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, dibenzofurans and biphenyls (PCDD/Fs, PCBs) in human milk and the input to infant body burden.

This study determined PCDD/F and PCB levels in human milk, examined factors associated with levels of contamination, and assessed the infant body burden from breast-feeding. The congeners of PCDD/Fs, dioxin-like PCBs, and indicator PCBs were analyzed by HRGC/HRMS for 36 human milk samples from healthy women, aged 20-35 years, from December 2000 to November 2001 in central Taiwan. Mean levels of WHO-TEQs in human milk were 10.5 (95% CI=8.8-12.2) and 14.5 (95% CI=12.5-16.5) pg-TEQ/g lipid for those <29 and > or =29 years old, respectively. PCB 138 concentration significantly predicted total WHO-TEQs with r2=0.84 (p <0.001). Milk level of dioxin-TEQ was 9.63 pg-TEQ/g lipid (95% CI=7.0-13.2) in those with a yearly income $29,000 compared to 6.3 pg-TEQ/g lipid (95% CI=5.2-7.6) for those whose yearly income was $18,000 per year. Women who reported being Buddhist (64.3 ng/glipid) had significantly higher indicator PCB concentrations than did those who reported being Taoist (35.3 ng/g lipid). The monthly dioxin intake of exclusively breastfed infants decreased with increasing duration of lactation. The cumulative dose of exclusively breastfed infants (76.5 ng TEQ, 95% CI=69.7-83.3) was significantly greater compared to that of formula-fed infants (CI=16.4-17.0) at one year and to that of infants at birth (3.90 ng TEQ, 95% CI=3.6-4.2). Our findings suggest that breast-feeding should be strongly encouraged for infants in Taiwan.     

Potential health risks to adults and children in the UK from exposure to dietary lead in gamebirds shot with lead ammunition

We estimate potential risks to human health in the UK from dietary exposure to lead from wild gamebirds killed by shooting. The main source of exposure to lead in Europe is now dietary. We used data on lead concentrations in UK gamebirds, from which gunshot had been removed following cooking to simulate human exposure to lead. We used UK food consumption and lead concentration data to evaluate the number of gamebird meals consumed weekly that would be expected, based upon published studies, to result in changes, over and above those resulting from exposure to lead in the base diet, in intelligence quotient (IQ), Systolic Blood Pressure and chronic kidney disease (CKD) considered in a recent opinion of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) to be significant at a population level and also in SAT test scores and in rates of spontaneous abortion. We found the consumption of <1 meal of game a week may be associated with a one point reduction in IQ in children and 1.2–6.5 gamebird meals per week may be associated with the other effects. These results should help to inform the development of appropriate responses to the risks from ingesting lead from ammunition in game in the UK and European Union (EU).     

Potential human health risks from metals (Hg, Cd, and Pb) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) via seafood consumption: Estimation of target hazard quotients (THQs) and toxic equivalents (TEQs)

Edible marine species (fish, cephalopod molluscs, crustaceans) from the Adriatic Sea were analyzed for content in heavy metals (Hg, Cd and Pb) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Health risks to human via dietary intake of seafood were assessed by the target hazard quotients (THQs) and the toxic equivalent factors (TEFs). Mercury maximum concentrations corresponded to fish (0.07-1.56 microg g(-1)w.w.), followed by cephalopod molluscs (0.10-0.55 microg g(-1)w.w.), and crustaceans (0.27-0.33 microg g(-1)w.w.). Cadmium levels in cephalopods (0.18-0.59 microg g(-1)w.w.) were higher than those in fish (0.01-0.05 microg g(-1)w.w.) and crustaceans (0.02-0.04 microg g(-1)w.w.), while for Pb the concentrations were generally low (fish: ND-1.18 microg g(-1)w.w., cephalopods: ND-0.17 microg g(-1)w.w., crustaceans: ND-0.03 microg g(-1)w.w.). For PCBs, concentrations in fish, cephalopods and crustaceans ranged between 141 and 3,406 ng g(-1)l.w., 190 and 542 ng g(-1)l.w., and 202 and 429 ng g(-1)l.w., respectively. Cd and Pb THQ values as well as estimates of PCB TEQ exposure indicated the absence of health risks through consumption of the various seafood. In contrast, mercury TEQs values due to consumption of certain fish species (albacore, rosefish and thornback ray) indicated that human health risk might be of concern.     

Ochratoxin A in adult population of Lleida, Spain: Presence in blood plasma and consumption in different regions and seasons

Ochratoxin A (OTA) levels in blood plasma, as well as the consumption of possibly contaminated foodstuffs by adult inhabitants, were determined in three seasons in the plain and the mountain regions of the province of Lleida (Spain). Daily intake of the toxin was estimated in order to evaluate the exposure of the studied population. OTA was extracted from plasma through liquid-liquid extraction followed by immunoaffinity chromatography columns clean-up. Detection was done through HPLC-fluorescence, and limit of detection was 0.018 ng/mL. Consumption data of the participants were obtained by means of a food frequency questionnaire. Occurrence of OTA in plasma was 100%. Range was 0.06-10.92 ng/mL, and median was 0.50 ng/mL. Differences between genders, regions or seasons were not significant, whereas significant differences were found among age groups. Regarding food consumption, significant differences were found between genders, but not between age groups, regions, or seasons. OTA plasma levels were not correlated with food consumption. Distributions of the intake estimations based on plasma levels differed from those based on food consumption and contamination. Mean and median values of the daily intake estimations were below the latest provisional tolerable daily intake of 14 ng/kg bw/day, but some high percentiles were above it.     

Food survey: Levels and potential health risks of chromium,lead, zinc and copper content in fruits and vegetables consumed in Algeria

A food survey was carried out with the aim to investigate the levels of lead (Pb), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu) and chromium (Cr) in various fruits and vegetables sold in Algeria. Concentrations (mg/kg dry wt.) in selected foodstuffs were detected within the following ranges: 4–29.49, 11.17–49, 12.33–39.33 and 3–16.33 for Cu, Zn, Pb and Cr respectively. The food ingestion rate of the selected items was investigated by self-administered questionnaires which were filled by a total of 843 people randomly recruited at the exit of markets. The potential health risk for consumers was investigated by estimating the daily intake (EDI) and the target hazard quotient (THQ) for each heavy metal. For all foodstuffs, the EDI and the THQ were below the threshold values for Cu, Zn and Cr while they exceeded the thresholds for Pb (EDI: 15.66 μg Pb/kg body weight/day; THQ: 4.37), indicating an obvious health risk over a life time of exposure.