胸腔镜与开胸脊柱前路手术的比较研究

目的评价胸腔镜脊柱前路手术的侵袭性和安全性。方法回顾性分析1998年1月～2003年10月施行的胸椎前路手术516例,按同一标准从中抽取采用胸腔镜脊柱前路手术的118例与开胸脊柱前路手术的113例,两组平均年龄、性别及疾病构成的条件均衡。对两组的围手术期参数、并发症和术后上肢功能进行比较研究。结果(1)围手术期参数:胸腔镜组平均术中出血量(450±53.2)ml,少于开胸组[(760±65.4)ml],差异有显著性(P<0.05);胸腔镜组平均引流量(150±20.2)ml,少于开胸组[(260±50.8)ml],差异有显著性(P<0.05);胸腔镜组平均胸痛持续时间(10±4.2)d,少于开胸组[(42±5.3)d],差异有显著性(P<0.05);平均手术时间和平均拔管时间两组间差异无统计学意义。(2)术后并发症:胸腔镜组并发症发生率为8.5%,开胸组为9.6%,差异无显著性(P>0.05)。(3)上肢功能评分:胸腔镜组术后及术后3个月的上肢功能评分低于开胸组,差异均有显著性(P值均<0.05);而术后6个月及12个月时差异无显著性。结论胸腔镜技术能安全、有效地应用于各种胸椎疾病的前路手术治疗。与传统开胸脊柱前路手术比较,具有组织创伤小、术中出血量少和术后早期上肢功能障碍轻等优势。     

胸腔镜辅助下前路病灶清除植骨内固定治疗胸椎结核

[目的]研究胸腔镜辅助下小切口技术前路病灶清除加植骨内固定治疗胸椎结核的临床疗效.[方法]分析2004年6月～2009年6月手术治疗的胸椎结核病人48例,男23例,女25例.按手术方式分为A组(开放手术组)和B组(胸腔镜辅助手术组),记录两组患者术中、术后出m量及手术时间.随访两组患者术后胸背疼痛、脊柱功能及胸椎后凸角矫正改善情况,并进行比较.[结果]A、B两组术中、术后出血鞋及手术时间组间分别比较差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05).48例患者经随访12～48个月(平均20个月),两组术后VAS、ODI及后凸角较术前明显改善(P＜0.05);两组术后VAS、ODI及后凸角改善率组间分别比较差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05),但是术后1周VAS改善B组较A组明显(P＜0.05).A组并发症8例(38.1%)与B组5例(18.5%)比较差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05).[结论]胸腔镜辅助下小切口前路病灶清除植骨内固定能有效地清除胸椎结核病灶,稳定脊柱,熟悉胸椎前方解剖结构,掌握胸腔镜操作技术及手术者之间默契配合是手术成功的关键.     

电视胸腔镜和胸腔镜辅助下小切口手术治疗食管平滑肌瘤的临床分析

目的 对比研究电视胸腔镜辅助下小切口和电视胸腔镜手术治疗食管平滑肌瘤的临床疗效,为临床治疗方案作出指导.方法 选取接受食管平滑肌瘤治疗的128例患者为研究对象.根据手术方式将患者分为两组,试验组为电视胸腔镜辅助下小切口（VAMTS）治疗组,对照组为电视胸腔镜（VATS）手术治疗组.对两组患者手术情况进行比较.结果 两组患者在术中出血量、术后引流量比较,差异无统计学意义（P＞0.05）,在手术时间、术后住院时间、术后禁食时间和总费用方面,差异有统计学意义（P＜0.05）.结论 电视胸腔镜辅助下小切口和电视胸腔镜手术治疗食管平滑肌瘤的临床疗效都具有创口小、并发症少的特点,但是胸腔镜辅助下小切口组的手术时间明显长于胸腔镜组.两种方法 临床疗效均好,临床应根据患者自身情况进行选择.     

胸腔镜手术治疗特发性胸椎侧弯的研究进展

传统前路开胸手术治疗特发性胸椎侧弯存在手术创伤大、术后疼痛严重、对术后肺功能影响大等缺点。电视胸腔镜手术在脊柱外科的应用使特发性胸椎侧弯的矫正有了微创手术的可能,常用的术式包括胸腔镜辅助下前路脊柱松解椎间植骨融合术和胸腔镜下胸椎侧凸前路矫形融合内固定术。本文就胸腔镜手术治疗特发性胸椎侧弯的发展历史,优缺点,不同手术方案的疗效和并发症等进行文献综述。     

电视胸腔镜辅助肺叶切除及系统性淋巴结清扫术治疗肺癌的临床分析

目的探讨肺癌患者采用电视胸腔镜辅助肺叶切除及系统性淋巴结清扫术的临床操作方法、技术要点和适应证等。方法 2007年2月至2008年2月我科收治了60例周围型原发性支气管肺癌患者,男36例,女24例;年龄34～79岁,平均年龄55岁。根据采用的手术术式不同,将60例患者分为两组,电视胸腔镜辅助(VAMT)组(n=30):行电视胸腔镜辅助肺叶切除及系统性肺门、纵隔淋巴结清扫术;传统开胸组(n=30):采用传统手术方法行肺叶切除及系统性肺门、纵隔淋巴结清扫术。结果两组患者均无死亡。VAMT组患者切口长度(6.8±1.1cmvs.21.5±3.4cm)、术后杜冷丁用量(52.5±10.2mgvs.228.3±32.6mg)、术后胸腔引流时间(3.2±0.8dvs.5.7±1.5d)和术后住院时间(6.3±1.4dvs.8.5±1.8d)短于或少于传统开胸组(P0.05);而清扫淋巴结数、术中出血量和术后胸腔引流量两组差异无统计学意义(P0.05)。结论对可手术的原发性肺癌患者行电视胸腔镜辅助下系统性淋巴结清扫术是可行的,在淋巴结清扫的彻底性方面能达到常规开胸手术的效果,并且创伤小、术后并发症少。     

胸椎侧凸胸腔镜下和开放小切口前路矫形术椎间融合面积研究

目的 比较特发性胸椎侧凸胸腔镜下前路矫形术与胸腔镜辅助下开放小切口前路矫形术的椎间植骨和融合效果。方法 将34例特发性胸椎右侧凸患者分为两组，A组10例患者接受胸腔镜下胸椎侧凸前路矫形术，平均年龄14．4岁，平均Cobb角52．9°。B组24例患者接受开放小切口前路矫形手术，平均年龄14．5岁，平均Cobb角45．4°。两组患者均采用自体肋骨作为移植骨。所有患者术后均行固定节段的CT扫描并获得完整的随访资料。通过测量术后CT片以及不同随访时间的X线片，对两组病例的椎间植骨面积百分比、矫形效果以及矫正丢失进行分析。结果两组患者在年龄、侧凸柔软性和固定节段等方面差异均无统计学意义，A组术前胸弯大于B组。两组患者术后平均椎间植骨面积百分比均超过40％，且组间差异无统计学意义（P〉0．05）。A组术后早期矫正丢失明显高于B组，差异有统计学意义（P〈0．05）。但两组在术后6个月后均无明显矫正丢失。结论 胸腔镜下胸椎侧凸前路矫形手术能够获得与开放小切口前路矫形手术同样满意的椎间植骨和融合效果，前者早期矫正丢失明显可能与固定的棒较细有关。     

胸腔镜辅助下小切口在胸椎前路手术的临床应用

目的探讨胸腔镜辅助下小切口行胸椎前路手术的可行性. 方法 2001年10月～2002年10月,我院在胸腔镜辅助下小切口行胸椎前路手术14例.其中6例胸椎转移瘤行病变椎体切除、钢板骨水泥椎体重建及前路针棒内固定;4例胸椎结核行病灶清除、植骨及前路钉棒内固定;2例胸椎间盘突出症行髓核摘除、椎间植骨融合;2例胸椎椎体骨折合并脱位行脱位椎体复位、椎管减压、椎体间植骨及前路钉棒内固定. 结果术后影像学显示病灶清除彻底,内固定效果确切.14例术后随访 4～12个月,14例胸背痛完全消失,13例脊髓压迫症中除1例转移瘤无改善外,其余12例肌力术前A～D级,术后恢复至C～E级. 结论胸腔镜辅助下小切口行胸椎前路手术方法可行,近期疗效满意.     

青少年特发性胸椎侧凸胸腔镜辅助前路矫形的疗效

目的 介绍特发性胸椎侧凸胸腔镜辅助小切口前路矫形手术的技术要点和手术适应证选择,并对其临床结果进行分析.方法 2001年7月至2006年1月共进行胸椎侧凸小切口前路矫形手术37例,男4例,女33例,平均年龄14.1岁,冠状面Cobb角平均56°,Lenke分型Ⅰ A 14例,Ⅰ B14例,Ⅰ C 9例,均为胸椎右侧凸,Risser征++～++++,对手术时间、术中出血量、固定节段、矫正效果以及矫正丢失等进行分析.结果 平均手术时间220 min,术中出血量平均320 ml,平均固定节段7.8个,术后Cobb角平均16.8°,平均侧凸矫正率70%,随访18～36个月,平均矫正丢失4.6%,无内固定并发症发生.结论 胸椎侧凸前路胸腔镜辅助小切口矫形手术在减少手术创伤、降低麻醉要求、相对胸腔镜手术更为宽松的适应证选择基础上,可以达到传统开胸前路矫形或后路矫形手术的临床效果、且没有增加手术并发症.     

胸腔镜辅助治疗与传统手术治疗肺癌的疗效比较

目的探讨小切口电视胸腔镜辅助与传统开胸手术治疗肺癌的临床疗效。方法将本院2008年6月至2009年6月连续收治的50例并行手术治疗的早中期非小细胞肺癌患者的临床资料进行回顾性分析,其中观察组24例,对照组26例。观察组为小切口电视胸腔镜辅助治疗,对照组为传统的开胸手术治疗,将两组患者的手术效果及术后C反应蛋白（CRP）的变化情况进行比较。结果观察组的手术时间显著长于对照组,P〈0.05。但出血量、术后疼痛程度、引流时间及住院时间显著优于对照组,P〈0.05。且观察组术后6小时、48小时及7天的CRP显著低于对照组,P〈0.05。结论胸腔镜辅助小切口手术具有比传统开胸术损伤小的优点,利于患者恢复。     

电视胸腔镜辅助小切口在肺癌手术中的应用研究

目的探讨电视胸腔镜辅助小切口在肺癌根治术中应用疗效。方法对我科于2002年1月至2007年6月在电视胸腔镜辅助小切口施行肺癌手术的临床资料进行回顾分析。本组共施行肺叶切除101例,全肺切除27例,全肺切除 肺动脉成形2例。结果手术时间90～230min,术中出血平均为130ml,术后胸腔引流液平均为150ml,胸腔引流时间2.5d,术后平均住院天数9d。本组所有患者均治愈出院。手术后并发症发生5例,其中胸腔内出血1例,肺部感染2例,肺不张1例及偶发室早1例。随访最长5年,术后复发5例。术后Ⅰ期患者的3年及5年生存率分别为46.2%和92。5%,Ⅱ期3年和5年生存率分别为62%和42%。结论电视胸腔镜辅加小切口行肺癌根治术其具有电视胸腔镜手术优点如创伤小,疼痛轻,术后恢复快,且其费用及五生存率与传统开胸无显著性差异,因此该术式具有推广应用价值。     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.