Does diagnosis affect the predictive accuracy of risk assessment tools for juvenile offenders: Conduct Disorder and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Studies have suggested an increased risk of criminality in juveniles if they suffer from co-morbid Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) along with Conduct Disorder. The Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY), the Psychopathy Checklist Youth Version (PCL:YV), and Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory (YLS/CMI) have been shown to be good predictors of violent and non-violent re-offending. The aim was to compare the accuracy of these tools to predict violent and non-violent re-offending in young people with co-morbid ADHD and Conduct Disorder and Conduct Disorder only. The sample included 109 White-British adolescent males in secure settings. Results revealed no significant differences between the groups for re-offending. SAVRY factors had better predictive values than PCL:YV or YLS/CMI. Tools generally had better predictive values for the Conduct Disorder only group than the co-morbid group. Possible reasons for these findings have been discussed along with limitations of the study.     

Risk Factors and Youth Recidivism Prediction in General and Property Offenders

The predictive validity of risk factors for recidivism in general offenders is well known, but few studies have considered specific crimes – such as non-violent property offences – in this context. The prediction of risk factors on recidivism among general and property offenders is analysed in an attempt to capture any motivational differences underlying diverse types of crimes. Subsamples of theft and property damage offenders were extracted from a general population of 210 juvenile offenders aged between 14 and 18 years. All participants were assessed using the Spanish version of the Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory (YLS/CMI) and their recidivism rates were evaluated in terms of the number of new records in a 24-month follow-up period. Factors pertaining to the Big Four (especially the antisocial peers risk factor) seem to be the most predictive factors for both general offenders and non-violent property offenders; the type of crime does not seem to make a significant difference to youth offenders’ needs.     

Risk-Need Assessment Inventories for Juvenile Offenders in Australia

Assessment of the risks and needs of juvenile offenders is widely accepted as fundamentally important in juvenile justice. We describe two inventories that are being used in Australian settings to systematically undertake such assessment: (a) the Secure Care Psychosocial Screening (SECAPS) assessment (Putnins 1999a), and (b) the Australian Adaptation of the Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory (YLS/CMI-AA; Hoge & Andrews, 1995). The conceptual, empirical and practical background for these instruments is provided. We report on the development and current status of the inventories. Advantages of structured assessment of risks and needs are highlighted, as are several caveats that deserve consideration.     

The relationship between intellectual disability, Indigenous status and risk of reoffending in juvenile offenders on community orders

Background   Intellectual disability (ID), age and aboriginal status have been independently implicated as risk factors for offending to varying degrees. This study examined the relationship between age, ID and the Indigenous status of juvenile offenders. It also examined the outcomes of the sample's offending in terms of court appearances and sentencing, criminogenic needs and risk of reoffending.
Method   The sample comprised 800 juvenile offenders on community orders of whom 19% were Indigenous, who completed the New South Wales Young People on Community Order Health Survey between 2003 and 2005. Risk and criminogenic needs were evaluated using the Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory (Australian Adaptation) (YLS/CMI: AA).
Results   Those with an ID were found to have a higher risk of reoffending than those without an ID. Those with an ID were also more likely to be younger and Indigenous. For Indigenous young offenders, there was no difference between those with and without an ID in risk category allocation or number of court dates. For non-Indigenous young offender, those with an ID had higher risk scores and more court dates.
Conclusions   This study provided evidence that Indigenous status may play a significant role in the relationship between ID and offending in juvenile offenders on community orders. These findings have clear implications for the 'risk', 'needs' and 'responsivity' principles of offender classification for treatment. Emphasis is placed on the requirement for addressing the needs of Indigenous juvenile offenders with an ID.     

Violence Risk among Youth Referred to a Forensic Mental Health Service

Youth who engage in serious aggressive, violent, or threatening behaviour pose a concern to others about their potential for future acts of violence. The current study investigates violence risk factors among young people referred to a child and youth forensic mental health service. The primary aim of this study is to examine the demographic, historical, and clinical characteristics of a sample of 91 young people in order to assess whether there are distinct groups or clusters that share common profiles. Using a two-step cluster analysis, three distinct clusters were found. Cluster 1 (generally non-violent, n = 34) comprises a subgroup with fewer family adversity factors and an absence of serious violence. Cluster 2 (early violence, n = 35) comprises a subgroup with serious violent histories, comorbid mental health disorders, and an early onset of behavioural difficulties. Cluster 3 (later violence, n = 19) includes young people with serious violent and antisocial histories, and a later onset of behavioural difficulties. The results of the study support the notion that youth referred for specialised violence risk assessments are a heterogeneous group with distinct individual differences. This has implications for determining the level of intervention and treatment required to reduce youth offending and violence.     

An exploration of individual differences in a sample of youth charged with violent sexual and non-sexual crimes

Youth who engage in violent crime, including sexual offences, remain understudied. Research conducted on adults suggests that factors linked to antisocial and violent behaviour may enhance the current understanding of sexual offences. These factors include a consideration of how dark personality traits (such as psychopathy) and childhood maltreatment may inform the likelihood of sexual offending. Utilizing a sample of juvenile alleged violent offenders (n?=?113), the present study examines the construct of adolescent psychopathy, with abuse as a potential moderator, in relation to offence perpetration. Contrary to some of the literature on adults, the findings indicate that neither psychopathy nor experience of abuse differentiates sexual from non-sexual violent offenders. They also suggest that scoring higher on psychopathy relates to violence more broadly. The importance of tailored programming for youth who may be at risk of offending or who require treatment in the justice system is explored.     

Saturday Night’s Alright for Fighting: Antisocial Traits,Fighting, and Weapons Carrying in a Large Sample of Youth

The current study examines risk and protective factors for youth antisocial personality and behavior from a multivariate format. It is hoped that this research will elucidate those risk and protective factors most important for focus of future prevention and intervention efforts. The current study examines multiple factors associated with youth antisocial traits and behavior in a sample of 8,256 youth (mean age 14), with the goal of identifying the strongest and most consistent risk or protective factors. Data was collected from the Ohio version of the Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System’s (YRBSS) school-based Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS) developed by the Centers for Disease Control (CDC). Hierarchical multiple regression analyses identified peer delinquency, drug use and negative community influences as predictive of antisocial traits. Schools and families functioned as protective factors. Youth who fought frequently tended to be male, antisocial, dug using, depressed, and associated with delinquent peers. Weapons carrying was most common among drug using, antisocial males. Television and video game use were not predictive of antisocial, fighting or weapons carrying outcomes. Developmental patterns across age ranges regarding the relative importance of specific risk factors were also examined. Strategies for intervention and prevention of youth violence that focus on peers, neighborhoods, depression, and families may be particularly likely to bear fruit.     

The significance of protective factors in the assessment of risk

Background Few studies have explored protective factors in the assessment of risk, despite acknowledgement that protective factors may play an important role. Aim To examine the significance of protective factors in assessment of risk using the Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY). Method The SAVRY was completed on 135 male adolescents in custody in the UK. Data on previous offending and childhood psychopathology were collected. Participants were prospectively followed up at 12 months using data from the Home Office Police National Computer (HOPNC). Results Participants with protective factors were older when first arrested, were less prolific offenders and had fewer psychopathological problems. The number of protective factors present was significantly higher for participants who did not re‐offend during the follow‐up. The total number of SAVRY protective factors significantly predicted desistance at follow‐up and resilient personality traits constituted the only significant individual protective factor. Conclusions and implications Protective factors might buffer the effects of risk factors and a resilient personality may be crucial. Recognition of protective factors should be an essential part of the risk management process and for interventions with high‐risk adolescents to reduce re‐offending. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Young female offenders and the New Zealand Youth Justice System: the need for a gender-specific response

Young female offenders comprise approximately one fifth of the New Zealand youth offender population; however, they remain an understudied population of offenders. This paper aims to provide a current overview of the key characteristics of this population and recommendations for how the youth justice system could better cater to this population. These recommendations include more training of professionals (specifically judges, youth advocates and justice coordinators) and practitioners (specifically social workers, psychologists and youth workers) in the youth-justice system in matters specific to young female offenders. A gender-responsive and trauma-informed approach to addressing offending behaviour is also necessary. There is a need for new empirical research in the New Zealand context on young female offenders and the best way to address offending by this group. Finally, a focus on the diversity of young female offenders is a priority, given the over-representation of indigenous and ethnic-minority communities in justice jurisdictions worldwide.Key words: females, gender-specific responses, juvenile justice, trauma-informed care, young offenders, young female offenders, youth justice     

Impact of Type of Intervention on Youth Reoffending: Are Gender and Risk Level Involved?

The objective of this study was to analyse the impact of the type of intervention on youth reoffending. Moreover, the possible influence that the offender's gender and level of risk could have on this relationship was also explored. Juvenile offenders from four different types of educational interventions participated in the study (N = 210): victim–offender mediation (VOM) as a diversion procedure, and case closure, reprimand, and community service as dispositions. Aged between 14-18 years, they were assessed by means of the Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory (YLS/CMI). Recidivism rates were evaluated as the number of new records in a follow-up period of 24 months. Results of this study showed that type of intervention (diversion versus dispositions) had no apparent effect on youth recidivism. Furthermore, an important aspect to consider in youth assessment was the different impact that risk level had on boys’ and girls’ recidivism.     

Psychiatrische Beurteilung des Gewaltrisikos im Jugendalter

The psychiatric assessment of violence in youth represents a critical and essential part of forensic expertise and clinical practice. New methodical approaches are offered by structured risk rating scales and checklists which encompass psychopathy. The recently translated German version of Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY), which is based on the Historical, Clinical, Risk Management Scheme (HCR 20), was evaluated in a sample of forensically assessed youth (n=83) regarding the predictive validity for criminal recidivism. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analyses attested medium (general delinquency), moderate (violent reoffending) and high (serious violent reoffending) effect strength, depending of the type of offence. Survival analyses showed that juveniles rated as high risk for violence were significantly faster and in a higher proportion recidivistic than those with a moderate or low risk. The results indicate the applicability of risk assessment instruments for German juveniles. Approaches for preventive, therapeutic and reintegrating measures are demonstrated, taking relapse patterns and dynamic risk aspects into consideration.     

Performance of the adolescent obsessive-compulsive scale in a community survey

Obsessive-compulsive behavior was studied in a cohort of N=570 subjects who had been assessed at three times between adolescence and young adulthood. Based on the Youth Self-Report (YSR) and the Young Adult Self-Report (YASR), the adolescent obsessive-compulsive scale (AOCS) was defined. At each of the three assessments, subjects scoring above the cut-off score of the 90th percentile of the AOCS were identified and compared to the rest of the sample serving as control group. The risk group was clearly more abnormal in both domains of internalizing and externalizing across time. Various psychiatric disorders in young adulthood were predicted by the AOCS. However, concomitant general psychopathology also contributed strongly to the prediction. Parent and youth agreement on group membership was rather low. Stability of group assignment across time was significantly increased. The AOCS is a promising instrument both for epidemiological and clinical studies. Its content and predictive validity deserves further studies.     

Criminal Engagement and Australian Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Populations: Challenges and Implications for Forensic Risk Assessment

There is a growing need for effective cross-cultural forensic health service delivery as Australia's population becomes increasingly diverse. The fastest growing migrant populations are of Culturally and Linguistically Diverse (CALD) origin and many refugees resettle in Australia through humanitarian intake programmes. As such it is important to ascertain whether there are cultural differences across factors that may directly or indirectly increase engagement in criminal behaviour. Similarly the applicability of violence risk instruments to Australian CALD populations is heavily under-researched and requires attention. This review addresses both key issues in an Australian context. Key risk items that may impact upon the criminal involvement of Australian CALD populations are identified and a review of violence risk studies with CALD populations is performed. Findings are discussed in view of a growing need for systemic cultural competence in the forensic health sector.     

An Evaluation of the Level of Service/Case Management Inventory in an Australian Community Corrections Environment

Risk assessments are crucial in aiding criminal justice practitioners because they provide a standardized instrument that aims to identify risk factors that may influence whether an individual will reoffend. This helps to tailor an offender's case-management program to ensure offenders are accessing the appropriate services and interventions and to keep the community safe from future reoffending. The aim of the current study was to investigate the validity and predictive utility of the LS/CMI in a sample of Australian offenders. The results indicate that the LS/CMI has a weak discriminative ability for non-Indigenous males. However, it predicts recidivism in non-Indigenous female offenders at an accuracy level no greater than chance. This finding should be interpreted with caution due to the small female offender sample size. These findings for non-Indigenous offenders are consistent with previous Australian and international research. It also highlights the importance of validating risk assessments for specific populations.     

School connectedness, anger behaviors, and relationships of violent and nonviolent American youth

PROBLEM: Youth violence research often focuses on risk factors arising from early familial interactions rather than school-related factors. METHODS: Via an Internet questionnaire, 282 girls and boys (ages 7-19, mean 15.3) from 47 states and Washington, DC, reported on school connectedness, interpersonal relationships, and anger behaviors. FINDINGS: Substantial percentages of violent youth did not perceive themselves to be liked by classmates and reported loneliness. If not liked by classmates, 80% hated school. Likers and haters of school differed on seven variables (all p < or = .01). CONCLUSIONS: Insufficient attention is paid to the alienation experienced by disliked and lonely students. Mental health nurses could play a pivotal role in fostering change in the social climate of schools and helping youth to achieve better anger management and social skills.     

Effectiveness of a Dialectical Behaviour Therapy Program for Incarcerated Female Juvenile Offenders

Background: Female offenders incarcerated in Washington State have demonstrated higher rates of mental health needs than boys. Linehan's (1993a, b) Dialectical Behavioural Therapy (DBT) is an effective treatment for adult women with Borderline Personality Disorder. DBT utilises a combination of skills training, problem solving, and validation to enable patients to reduce self-destructive, impulsive and aggressive behaviours. The prevalence of similar emotional problems among female juvenile offenders suggests that DBT may be an effective strategy for this population. The State of Washington Governor's Juvenile Justice Advisory Committee sponsored a collaborative project conducted by a research team from the University of Washington and the staff at the Juvenile Rehabilitation Administration's Echo Glen Children's Center to evaluate the effectiveness of a DBT intervention.
Method: Pre-post intervention records were compared for female offenders from a mental health and a general population unit where DBT was implemented. Youth on a third unit served as a comparison group. Youth behaviour problems, staff punitive responses were compared before and after the intervention period.
Results: Youth behaviour problems and use of punitive responses by staff decreased compared to the year prior on one cottage (unit) while no behaviour or staff changes were noted on another.
Conclusions: The evaluation demonstrated the efficacy of providing DBT to female offenders in a residential setting and yielded mixed results on behaviour change during the study period that may relate to quality of training and prior youth behaviour problems.     

Implementation of the Risk–Need–Responsivity Framework across the Juvenile Justice Agencies in Singapore

The Risk–Need–Responsivity (RNR) framework is regarded as the forefront of offender rehabilitation in guiding youth offender risk assessment and interventions. This article discusses the juvenile justice system in Singapore and the local research that has been conducted in relation to the RNR framework and the associated Youth Level of Service (YLS) measures. It describes a journey that saw the implementation of the RNR framework across the juvenile justice agencies and highlights the challenges that were faced during the implementation process on the ground. Finally, the article concludes by providing future directions for the implementation of the RNR framework in Singapore.     

Appetitive Violence: A New Phenomenon?

Youth violence has long been regarded as a major social issue. The past decade has, however, seen the scrutiny which encompasses this violence intensify, largely due to a recent media focus on an apparently increasing tendency amongst some young people to engage in acts of ‘appetitive’ or ‘thrill-seeking’ violence. This is reported to be a new form of violence, in which young people act in an excitable state, rather than the more common form of anger-mediated violence. Whilst incidents of appetitive violence are overly represented in the news media and are presented as a major public concern, there is presently no empirical research exploring the validity of this phenomenon and no systematic analysis of the frequency and severity of this form of violent behaviour. Furthermore, the underlying causes of this type of violence are not understood. As such, preventative practices, risk assessment, treatment requirements and targeted management strategies are lacking. The purpose of this review is to examine the current literature on youth violence, particularly youth involvement in ‘thrill-seeking’ acts of violence, as well as describing a range of contemporary factors highlighted as integral to youth violence; specifically, gang involvement, alcohol use and the possession of weapons. This review will also examine an array of international strategies implemented in response to this form of youth violence. Finally, the General Aggression Model (GAM) will be considered to determine whether its framework can assist in advancing our understanding of appetitive violence, by elucidating those characteristics of the individual and their environment that contribute to its expression.     

Early psychosocial intervention for youth at risk for bipolar I or II disorder: a one-year treatment development trial

Miklowitz DJ, Chang KD, Taylor DO, George EL, Singh MK, Schneck CD, Dickinson LM, Howe ME, Garber J. Early psychosocial intervention for youth at risk for bipolar I or II disorder: a one‐year treatment development trial.
Bipolar Disord 2011: 13: 67–75. © 2011 The Authors.
Journal compilation © 2011 John Wiley & Sons A/S. Objectives: Previous studies have identified behavioral phenotypes that predispose genetically vulnerable youth to a later onset of bipolar I or II disorder, but few studies have examined whether early psychosocial intervention can reduce risk of syndromal conversion. In a one‐year open trial, we tested a version of family‐focused treatment adapted for youth at high risk for bipolar disorder (FFT‐HR). Methods: A referred sample of 13 children (mean 13.4 ± 2.69 years; 4 boys, 9 girls) who had a parent with bipolar I or II disorder participated at one of two outpatient specialty clinics. Youth met DSM‐IV criteria for major depressive disorder (n = 8), cyclothymic disorder (n = 1), or bipolar disorder not otherwise specified (n = 4), with active mood symptoms in the past month. Participants were offered FFT‐HR (12 sessions in four months) with their parents, plus psychotropic medications as needed. Independent evaluators assessed depressive symptoms, hypomanic symptoms, and global functioning at baseline and then every four months for one year, with retrospective severity and impairment ratings made for each week of the follow‐up interval. Results: Families were mostly adherent to the treatment protocol (85% retention), and therapists administered the FFT‐HR manual with high levels of fidelity. Youth showed significant improvements in depression, hypomania, and psychosocial functioning scores on the Adolescent Longitudinal Interval Follow‐up Evaluation. They also showed significant improvements in Young Mania Rating Scale and Children’s Depression Rating Scale scores. Conclusions: FFT‐HR is a promising intervention for youth at high risk for BD. Larger‐scale randomized trials that follow youth into young adulthood will be necessary to determine whether early psychosocial intervention can reduce the probability of developing bipolar I or II disorder among genetically vulnerable youth.     

Assessing the Risk of Australian Indigenous Sexual Offenders Reoffending: A Review of the Research Literature and Court Decisions

The assessment of offenders’ risk of reoffending, particularly sexual reoffending, is a core activity of forensic mental health practitioners. The purpose of these assessments is to reduce the risk of harm to the public, but they are controversial and become more contentious when Australian practitioners who want to undertake such assessments in an ethically responsible way must use reliable validated instruments, disclose the limitations of their assessment methods, instruments and data to judicial decision-makers and understand how decision-makers might use their reports. The purpose of this systematic literature review was to explore the practices of Australian practitioners and courts in respect of the assessment of Australian Indigenous male sexual offenders’ risk of reoffending. We could not identify an instrument that has been developed for the assessment of this population group. Australian courts differ in whether they admit and give weight to practitioners’ evidence and opinions based on data obtained with non-validated instruments. We could only identify three possible predictor variables with enough quantitative support to justify including them in an instrument that could be used to assess Indigenous sexual offenders. There is a need for research regarding the validity of the instruments that practitioners use.