New frontiers in venous sinus stenting: Illustrative cases

Idiopathic intracranial hypertension (IIH) occurs rarely, with severe patients recalcitrant to pharmacologic management often requiring cerebrospinal fluid diversion. We report two patients with variant IIH successfully treated with venous sinus stenting: 1) A 65-year-old man with severe vision loss, papilledema, and cognitive decline treated with four telescoped stents across a long, severely stenotic transverse-sigmoid system, and 2) a 58-year-old woman with headaches, vision loss, and papilledema secondary to a jugular paraganglioma causing severe jugular bulb stenosis that required contralateral venous sinus stenting. At 3-month and 1-month follow-up, respectively, ophthalmologic examinations showed vision improvement. The first patient also had improved cognition, and the second patient also had improved headaches.     

Features of dural sinus thrombosis simulating pseudotumor cerebri

To characterize dural sinus thrombosis (DST) patients presenting with a syndrome simulating pseudotumor cerebri (PTC), medical records of patients initially diagnosed as having PTC between 1980 and 1995 were analysed. Inclusion criteria were intracranial hypertension (IH) and a normal initial computed tomography (CT) scan. All patients underwent angiography or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and magnetic resonance venography (MRV). Patients with IH secondary to a determined disorder were excluded from the study. Forty-six patients were included, 12 patients had MRI/MRV or angiography findings compatible with DST and the remaining 34 patients had no vascular pathology on neuroimaging studies and were considered to have PTC. No clinical or auxiliary findings differed between the two groups except for younger age, which delineated the PTC patients. Two patients with DST died during the study. Both were agitated, had a relatively rapid course of symptom progression, and a CSF pressure of over 40 cm water. We conclude that DST can be identified in 26% of patients presenting with symptoms and signs typical of PTC. It may be impossible to differentiate between patients with and without DST if MRI/MRV or angiography are not performed in this scenario. Copyright Lippincott Williams & Wilkins     

Extradural hematoma: analysis of 146 cases

One hundred forty-six consecutive patients operated on for extradural hematoma (EDH) from 1979 through 1991 were analyzed. This series included patients from both before and after the advent of computed tomography (CT). There were 102 boys and 44 girls, aged 1–16 years. All patients underwent plain skull X-radiography. CT scans were obtained in 72 cases and angiography was performed in 10. Thirty patients with EDH did not have skull fractures. Falls were predominant among the modes of injury. Thirty-seven percent of patients had a lucid interval. The overall mortality was 10%. The mortality rates in the CT and plain X-ray groups were 6% and 16% respectively. There was only one death in patients who did not have a lucid interval. The Glasgow Coma Scale scores of all patients who died in this series were less than 8. We concluded that mydriasis, comatose state at the time of operation, and a lucid interval are ominous signs in the prediction of outcome.Presented at the XX Annual Meeting of the International Society for Pediatric Neurosurgery, Prague 1992     

Extradural hematoma complicating middle fossa arachnoid cyst

Two cases of post-traumatic extradural hematoma complicating an arachnoid cyst of the middle cranial fossa in children are described. While subdural and intracystic hemorrhages are well-known complications from this malformation, the association with extradural hematoma has never been previously reported in the literature. The pathogenetic mechanisms are discussed and the particular vulnerability of intracranial arachnoid cysts is stressed.     

Diagnostic value of the optic nerve sheath diameter in pseudotumor cerebri

If persistent severe headache remains the only complaint of a patient, then the diagnosis of pseudotumor cerebri (PTC) can be delayed because in such cases practitioners are hesitant to immediately apply invasive intracranial pressure (ICP) measurement. Our purpose was to apply the technique of measuring diameters of the optic nerve sheath (ONSD) as a diagnostic tool in cases of PTC. Our aim was to provide practitioners with an additional sign to speed up their decision making about implementation of the lumbar puncture. In a retrospective study, CT scan data of 35 consecutive adult patients with PTC were collected and analyzed. ONSD were measured at the point where the ophthalmic artery crosses the optic nerve (anatomical landmark). The correlation analysis was performed with sex, age, and neuro-ophthalmological findings. We found that the ONSD was enlarged in 94.3% of patients with PTC. The enlarged ONSD were 6.2 ± 1.2 mm for the right and 6.3 ± 0.9 mm for the left (cut-off value >5.5 mm). The enlargement was bilateral, and no correlation with age or sex was found (p = 0.67 and p = 0.76, respectively). Presence of papilledema was detected in 91.4% of patients (32/35) presenting as a slightly less valuable diagnostic sign compared with ONSD. We conclude that in the majority of cases of PTC the ONSD is significantly enlarged, indicating elevated ICP even if CT scans are negative. Implementing this ONSD method as a diagnostic tool in cases of suspected PTC may help in early accurate diagnosis, avoiding misdiagnosis, and providing appropriate early treatment.     

Clinical spectrum of the pseudotumor cerebri in children: Etiological,clinical features,treatment and prognosis

Objective: Pseudotumor cerebri (PTC) is a clinical condition characterized by signs and symptoms of increased intracranial pressure, such as headache and papilledema. Our aim was to investigate the etiological and clinical features of pseudotumor cerebri (PTC) in children. Materials and method: We performed a comprehensive analysis of epidemiology, diagnostic work-up, therapy, and clinical follow-up in 42 consecutive patients. Results: Totally 42 patients diagnosed with PTC [27 (64.3%) females and 15 (35.7%) males] were included in the study. The average age of the symptoms onset was 10.79 ± 3.43 years (range from 12 months to 17 years). Obesity was found in eleven (26.2%) of them. Two of the patients had familial mediterranean fever, two of them had posttraumatic PTC. The following diseases were one patient, respectively; mycophenolate mofetil-induced PTC, hypervitaminosis A induced PTC, corticosteroid induced withdrawal due to nephritic syndrome, use of oral contraceptives, Guillain–Barre syndrome, urinary tract infection, varicella-zoster virus infection and dural venous sinus thrombosis associated with otitis media. The most common symptom was headache, recorded in 76.2% of the patients. All patients were treated medically. Three patients in our group also required a ventriculoperitoneal shunt. Conclusion: Pseudotumor cerebri is an avoidable cause of visual loss, both in adults and children. Pre-pubertal obese girls are more common. Medical therapy appeared to be successful in treating pediatric PTC in most patients. Nevertheless, despite adequate treatment, children can rarely experience loss of visual field and acuity; thus, prompt diagnosis and management are important.     

额叶挫伤合并隐匿性跨上矢状窦硬膜外血肿的诊断与治疗

目的探讨额叶挫伤合并隐匿性跨上矢状窦硬膜外血肿的诊断与治疗原则。 方法回顾性分析山东省千佛山医院神经外四科自2012年11月至2017年11月收治的额叶挫伤合并跨上矢状窦硬膜外血肿患者12例,术前行颅脑冠状位及矢状位CT及三维重建,根据影像学所示颅内出血损伤程度制定相应治疗方案,观察临床疗效。 结果12例患者术后恢复GOSⅤ级6例（包括4例保守治疗）,GOSⅣ级3例,GOSⅢ级2例,GOSⅡ级1例。 结论早期准确诊断额叶挫伤合并跨上矢状窦硬膜外血肿并选择合理的处理方式对患者的预后有重要意义。     

Prevalence of Chiari I malformation and cerebellar ectopia in patients with pseudotumor cerebri

BACKGROUND: Chiari I malformation (CM) may be present pre-surgically in pseudotumor cerebri (PTC) patients. Whether inferior tonsillar displacement (ITD) is coincidental or linked to increased intracranial pressure is unclear. This study aimed to identify the prevalence of both CM and cerebellar ectopia (CE) (ITD below the foramen magnum > or = 5 mm and 2-4 mm, respectively) in PTC patients. METHODS: Retrospective review combined with prospective assessment of 68 PTC patients with available brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans and reports. Data collected included patient demographics, height, weight, co-morbid conditions, and medications. MRIs were analyzed for cerebellar tonsillar position, and results were compared with original reports. RESULTS: Of 68 PTC patients, 60 (88%) had normal position of the cerebellar tonsils and 8 (12%) had ITD by report. Of the latter group, 4 were identified as CM and 4 as CE. On review of MRIs, however, 16 patients (24%) had ITD, 7 having CM and 9 having CE. All patients with ITD were female, most were overweight or obese, and most had presumed idiopathic intracranial hypertension (IIH). CONCLUSION: ITD exists pre-surgically in a significant percentage of PTC patients. ITD is most common in obese or overweight women with presumed IIH. In fact, this subset of patients may actually represent a secondary form of PTC and may benefit from correction of ITD to restore normal intracranial pressure.     

Obstruction of cerebral venous sinus secondary to idiopathic intracranial hypertension

Background: Whether cerebral venous sinus obstruction is a cause or consequence of idiopathic intracranial hypertension (IIH) is uncertain. Methods and results: Among the nine children with IIH, five showed stenosis (n = 5) and occlusion (n = 1) of cerebral venous sinus on cranial magnetic resonance imaging (n = 4) or conventional angiography (n = 1), respectively. Follow‐up magnetic resonance imaging performed in four children showed complete regression of the venous pathology in one and partial regression in two of them. Conclusions: Our data demonstrate that cerebral venous sinus obstruction is frequent and frequently transient in pediatric IIH and suggest that stenoses may result from elevated intracranial pressure.     

矢状窦切开置管抗凝治疗颅内静脉窦血栓形成

颅内静脉窦通常因大脑的血液循环血流较快,不易造成血栓形成,但在外伤及一些高凝状态等情况下也可发生颅内静脉窦血栓形成(cranial venous sinUS thrombosis,CYST).     

Pseudotumor cerebri syndrome in children: Clinical characteristic and re-classification

AimTo describe the clinical characteristics of children with pseudotumor cerebri syndrome (PTCS) who were diagnosed according to the modified Dandy criteria and to reclassify them according to the newly proposed diagnostic criteria by Freidman.MethodologyThis retrospective study included the period from January 2016-to July 2021.Results50 patients were included; 34 males and 16 females with a male to female ratio of 2.1:1. The average age at onset of symptoms was 8 years. Obesity was noticed in 6 (12%) patients; 34 (68%) had symptoms upon presentation. The most common presenting symptom was headache (28 patients; 56%), papilledema was present in 33 (66%) patients. Most patients (37; 74%) had an initial cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) pressure ≥280 mmH₂O. At last follow-up, papilledema resolved in 11/32 (34.3%) patients, and headache resolved in 17/23 (74%) patients. 22/50 (44%) patients fulfilled the definite criteria proposed by Freidman, 11/50 (22%) fulfilled the probable, 10/50 (20%) were categorized as possible, and 7 (14%) patients were categorized as unmet.ConclusionPTCS is a chronic condition. Managing patients who do not have papilledema or who do not meet the newly proposed higher CSF pressure is challenging. Although, applying the newly proposed criteria captured most of our patients, however, around one quarter were managed based on clinical experience. This study indicates a strong need for future guidelines tailored specifically for children, taking into consideration that the cut-off point of CSF pressure might not be similar for all populations.     

Dural venous sinus stenting for idiopathic intracranial hypertension: An updated review

Background

Dural venous sinus stenting (DVSS) is an accepted treatment option in selected patients with medically refractory idiopathic intracranial hypertension and obstructive venous outflow physiology prior to cerebrospinal flow diversion (CSFD) surgery. There are no randomized controlled studies focusing on outcomes and complication rates for dural venous sinus stenting.

微创钻孔引流治疗硬膜外血肿

目的探讨硬膜外血肿的手术治疗。方法回顾性分析15例硬膜外血肿患者进行微创钻孔引流术的临床资料、手术方法和治疗效果。结果15例中有1例在引流中出血,注入凝血酶后血止住。1例出现硬膜下积液,没作任何处理,3周后吸收。15例患者均治愈,最短3d出院,最长12d出院。1例轻瘫患者出院后一月完全恢复。结论与传统手术相比,微创钻孔引流治疗硬膜外血肿是一种行之有效的治疗方法,安全、创伤小,对一些血肿稳定,不需要减压的硬膜外血肿患者行微创钻孔引流术更合适。     

外伤性颅内静脉窦血栓诊治体会

目的 探讨外伤性颅内静脉窦血栓形成的诊断及治疗方法。 方法 回顾性分析经临床和影像学方法确诊的13例外伤性颅内静脉窦血栓形成患者资料,其中行血肿清除及去骨瓣手术3例,采取早期抗凝、静脉溶栓2例,静脉窦接触性溶栓介入治疗2例,病程较长、保守治疗效果不理想者行侧脑室—腹腔分流手术1例,余5例横窦栓塞患者没有症状或者症状轻微,行保守治疗。 结果 13例患者中10例治愈,2例存在局灶性症状,1例轻度智力障碍。术后3d～6个月8例复查DSA,3～6个月5例复查MRV,均通畅。结论外伤性颅内静脉窦血栓形成一旦确诊应尽早积极治疗,抗凝和溶栓治疗是目前主要治疗方法。     

难治性颅内静脉窦血栓形成的机械碎栓治疗

目的 研究机械性碎栓治疗难治性颅内静脉窦血栓形成患者的安全性和有效性.方法 对23例抗凝治疗不能控制病情发展的颅内静脉窦血栓形成患者,施行了机械性碎栓治疗.其中,单纯机械性碎栓治疗5例,机械性碎栓联合接触性溶栓治疗的患者18例.术后规范抗凝治疗12个月,同时筛查静脉窦血栓病因,并给予相应处理.术后3个月、6个月和12个月进行临床随访,包括眼底视盘检查、GCS评分、mRS评分,腰穿和MRV或DSA检查.结果 机械碎栓治疗后即刻,所有患者静脉窦主干血流恢复.患者出院前神经功能评分2.1±1.1较术前3.7±1.2明显改善(P＜0.05),GCS评分11.5±4.6较术前10.5±3.4明显改善(P＜0.05),其中mRS评分0～1分患者9例,2分6例,3分及以上7例,死亡1例,另有4例自动出院后死亡.术后3个月回访,所有患者眼底视盘水肿消失,腰穿压力恢复正常,mRS评分0～1分患者14例,2分3例,3分1例.术后12个月mRS评分0～1分患者17例,2分1例,未见患者血栓复发.结论 机械碎栓是难治性颅内静脉窦血栓安全、有效的一种治疗手段.抗凝治疗不能控制症状或者是重症患者应尽早采用机械性碎栓治疗.     

磁共振黑血联合MRV评价人脑静脉窦狭窄的DSA对比研究

目的对照DSA评估磁共振黑血联合MRV评价人脑静脉窦狭窄的临床价值。方法收集2015-03—2017-02我院诊治脑静脉窦狭窄患者临床及影像学资料30例,均行脑静脉磁共振及DSA检查,评估黑血联合MRV对静脉窦狭窄程度及窦腔内血栓检出的价值。结果以DSA检查结果为标准,磁共振黑血联合MRV成像判断颈动脉狭窄率,以狭窄率70%为判断点,其灵敏度为98.4%、特异度为92.3%、准确度为87.8%。黑血技术成像联合MRV可直接显示静脉窦血栓情况,较DSA间接显示更清晰,更直观。结论磁共振黑血技术联合MRV成像可较好的显示人脑静脉窦狭窄程度病变情况,对于窦腔内血栓可做进一步评估。     

颅内静脉窦血栓形成13例

目的探讨颅内静脉窦血栓形成(CVST)的临床特点与治疗方法。方法分析13例CVST患者的临床、影像学特征及治疗方法。结果 13例多为中青年患者,临床表现头痛12例(92.3%),癫痫发作8例(61.5%)。11例腰穿显示脑脊液压力增高。头颅CT显示脑静脉窦异常5/13例(38.5%);MRI显示脑静脉窦异常7/13例(53.8%);MRV显示脑静脉窦异常7/12例(58.3%);DSA显示脑静脉窦异常6/6例(100%)。患者均应用脱水和抗凝治疗,部分予溶栓治疗,13例中5例基本痊愈,6例明显好转,2例遗留有不同程度的偏瘫、癫痫等症状。结论 CVST的临床特点是中青年人发生率高,以头痛、呕吐等颅高压症状为主要表现;MRI+MRV及DSA确诊率高;一旦确诊应及时予抗凝治疗,重症患者可行溶栓治疗。     

Venous obstruction and jugular valve insufficiency in idiopathic intracranial hypertension

The pathophysiology of elevated intracranial pressure in idiopathic intracranial hypertension (IIH) is unclear. Cerebral venous outflow obstruction and elevated intracranial venous pressure may play an etiological role. We examined jugular valve insufficiency as a potential factor contributing to intracranial hypertension. Jugular venous valve function was assessed bilaterally by duplex sonography in 20 consecutive patients with diagnosis of IIH and in 20 healthy controls matched for age, gender and body mass index. Diagnosis of valvular insufficiency was based on reflux duration during a controlled Valsalva maneuver. Intracranial venous outflow was evaluated in 11 patients (MR venography in 10, digital subtraction angiography (DSA) in two cases). As a principle result, valvular insufficiency was significantly more frequent in patients with IIH (70 vs. 30%; p < 0.05). This finding was associated with irregular leaflet structures on B-mode imaging (p < 0.01). Bilateral insufficiency was more frequent in the patient group which, however, was not significant (p = 0.08). In addition, sinovenous outflow obstruction was found in five of six patients that had undergone contrast-enhanced MR venography and DSA. The detection rate was inferior in phase-contrast MR imaging (one of five patients). In conclusion, this study gives evidence that valvular insufficiency may play a causal role in IIH. Obesity is a major risk factor for the disease and weight reduction leads to improvement of symptoms. Possibly, increased intra-abdominal pressure is transmitted into the intracranial venous system, causing intracranial hypertension. Jugular valve insufficiency may facilitate pressure transmission. As transverse sinus stenosis was a concomitant finding, these factors may be complementary.