Characteristics of pain and pain management in the elderly

A COMMON SYMPTOM: Pain is a common and underestimated problem in older people who are likely to suffer from many acute and chronic conditions. DIFFICULT ASSESSMENT: Clinical assessment of pain often depends on the patient's ability to communicate his or her experience. If self-assessment of pain is not possible, behavioral hetero-evaluation instruments have been built for easy pain assessment by caregivers. ADJUSTED PAIN MANAGEMENT: As for younger patients, the most common strategy for pain management is the use of analgesic drugs. Special care should be taken however when such drugs are initiated in the elderly because increased sensitivity, prolonged drug half-life and adverse effects and drug interactions are more likely.     

From pain research to pain treatment: the role of human experimental pain models

There is no objective measure of a complete pain perception; we can, however, measure different aspects of nociceptive processing and pain perception. Earlier, experimental pain models often only involved induction of cutaneous pain using a single stimulus modality. Recently new experimental models have been developed eliciting various modalities of deep and visceral pain which more closely resemble clinical pain conditions. It is imperative to use multi-modal and multi-structure pain induction and assessment techniques, because a simple model cannot describe the very complex and multi-factorial aspects of clinical pain. Furthermore, it is important to assess pain under normal and pathophysiological conditions.The importance of peripheral and central hyperexcitability for acute and chronic pain has been demonstrated in animals and, to some extent, in humans. However, in spite of our immense knowledge, we still do not know how to prevent and treat this hyperexcitability efficiently. Our understanding of nociceptive mechanisms involved in acute and chronic pain and the effects of anaesthetic drugs or combinations of drugs on these mechanisms in humans may also be expanded using human experimental models. This mechanism-based approach may help us to develop and test therapeutic regimes in patients with acute and chronic pain.     

Low back pain and the post-laminectomy pain syndrome

Back pain is one of the most common disorders seen in general practice. Patients with chronic low back pain form a large proportion of the work of any pain relief unit. The aetiology of low back pain and the post-laminectomy pain syndrome are briefly presented and treatment of the 'failed back surgery patient' and the patient with arachnoiditis are discussed.     

Postoperative delirium: the importance of pain and pain management

Postoperative delirium is common in geriatric patients. Few studies have examined events in the postoperative period that may contribute to the occurrence of postoperative delirium. We hypothesized that postoperative delirium is related to postoperative pain and/or pain management strategy. Patients aged > or =65 years who were scheduled for major noncardiac surgery were studied. A structured interview was conducted preoperatively and for the first 3 postoperative days to determine the presence of delirium using the Confusion Assessment Method. The method of postoperative pain management, as well as pre- and postoperative medications for the first 3 days, was collected. Pre- and postoperative pain at rest and with movement was recorded using the Visual Analog Scale. Three hundred thirty-three patients, with a mean age of 74 +/- 6 years, were studied. After surgery, 46% of patients developed postoperative delirium. By multivariate logistic regression, age (odds ratio [OR], 2.5; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.5 to 4.2), moderate (OR, 2.2; 95% CI 1.2 to 4.0) and severe (OR, 3.7; 95% CI 1.5 to 9.0) preoperative resting pain, and increase in level of pain from baseline to postoperative day one (OR, 1.1; 95% CI 1.01 to 1.2) were independently associated with a greater risk for the development of postoperative delirium. In contrast, patients who used oral opioid analgesics as their sole means of postoperative pain control were at decreased risk of developing delirium in comparison with those who used opioid analgesics via IV patient-controlled analgesia technique (OR, 0.4; 95% CI 0.2 to 0.7). These results validate our hypothesis that pain and pain management strategies are important factors related to the development of postoperative delirium in elderly patients.     

Role of pain injection procedures in the management of chronic pain

The paper offers an overview of pain intervention procedures which are just one facet of a holistic approach to managing pain. They can have a therapeutic and/or diagnostic focus, at times being useful in terms of guiding the clinician to useful pointers to the source of pain, and at others allowing windows of opportunity of pain relief to allow the patient to engage with other modes of pain management such as physiotherapy or occupational therapy with a common goal of improving level of function. The paper explores the importance of managing patient expectations, providing clear patient information and acquiring appropriate patient consent. It provides a brief overview of different procedures, drugs and other modalities as well as imaging used in their delivery.     

Flagging the pain: preventing the burden of chronic pain by identifying and treating risk factors in acute pain

Chronic pain represents a major public health problem that impacts negatively on quality-of-life issues and healthcare costs. Unrelieved acute post-traumatic and postoperative pains are risk factors in the development of chronic pain, although psychological and environmental factors are at work as well. Flagging pain (blue, yellow and red flags) helps to identify risk factors in acute pain that need attention to avoid the transition from acute postoperative pain to acute persistent and then on to chronic pain. This offers a unique opportunity for preventative medicine.     

Accuracy of the unassisted pain drawings by patients with chronic pain

This investigation was conducted to test the accuracy of unassisted pain maps drawn by patients with chronic pain. Three aspects of accuracy were investigated, the accuracy of the area of pain reported, whether all existing pains were reported, and whether related symptoms were reported. Thirty-six successive new admissions to a chronic pain rehabilitation center were used as subjects. Each patient filled out the pain map prior to meeting any professional staff. During their examination the investigators completed a new pain map without seeing the patient's map. Thirty-one pairs of pain maps were compared and scored, with most maps showing several pain areas. Area of pain was accurately represented 43% of the time. Of 139 distinct pains found during examination, only 58% were reported in the pain maps. Thirtyfour percent of related symptoms were reported. It appears that unassisted pain maps are sufficiently flawed to discourage their use as an indicator of the patients symptom location J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 1987;8(8):391-396.     

疼痛灾难化预测术后疼痛的研究进展

疼痛灾难化是患者对疼痛产生的夸大且消极的思维定势。作为与疼痛相关的主要负面心理情绪之一,疼痛灾难化可以通过多种机制调控疼痛体验。因此,疼痛灾难化可能是各种疼痛相关疾病的潜在发病机制和治疗靶点。近年来,由于相对统一的量表出现,越来越多的研究将疼痛灾难化作为术前心理评估项目,探讨术前疼痛灾难化强度预测术后疼痛发生的可能性。全文对疼痛灾难化的相关概念、发生机制、评估手段以及疼痛灾难化对术后急慢性疼痛的预测能力的研究进展进行综述。     

Cancer pain and evaluation of the pain: preface and comments

Cancer pain is very unpleasant often difficult to treat. Therefore, we should recognize the mechanisms of cancer pain and know the physical pain, psychological pain, social pain and spiritual pain as total pain. Besides, we must understand how to evaluate the cancer pain using the methods of assessment of cancer pain, and scales of pain degree (VAS, NRS, VRS, FRS, FVAS). New devices of pain measurement and the character of pain(McGill and Yatabe) are also introduced. The mechanism and grade of cancer pain often confuse us to recognize cancer pain. The articles in this special issue are useful for the evaluation and treatment of cancer pain. I feel happy if these articles contribute to the treatment of patients with cancer pain.     

全膝关节置换术围手术期疼痛的原因及镇痛的研究进展

全膝关节置换术已经成为目前治疗终末期膝关节骨性关节炎的有效手术方法之一.然而术后的疼痛问题却一直困扰着临床医生.术后疼痛的原因可分为医源性,假体源性和患者源性3大因素.围手术期疼痛的处理包括术前的宣教,超前镇痛,假体的选择与设计;术中的处理主要包括合适的手术入路,保持膝关节周围的软组织平衡,术中膝关节周围鸡尾酒镇痛;术后主要包括口服镇痛药物,股神经组织以及患者的自控镇痛.以及近年来兴起的围手术期多种镇痛方式联合应用的多模式镇痛.对于围手术期的疼痛进行充分的干预,可有效缓解膝关节置换术后患者的疼痛,使患者更好的进行功能锻炼,从而获得更好的手术效果.     

术后急性疼痛与慢性疼痛关系的研究进展

背景 术后急性疼痛管理仍然不尽人意,如何防治急性疼痛转化为慢性疼痛仍然是临床亟待解决的问题. 目的 阐述术后急性疼痛转化为慢性疼痛的研究进展,为术后疼痛管理以减少慢性疼痛的发生提供参考. 内容 就急性疼痛转化为慢性疼痛的可能性等方面作一综述. 趋向 进一步研究术后急性疼痛转化为慢性疼痛的机制,以明确有效的预防急性疼痛慢性化的方法.