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1.
M.J. Corts J. Valero J.A. Gutirrez-Zotes A. Hernndez L. Moreno M. Jariod L. Martorell E. Vilella A. Labad 《European psychiatry》2009,24(7):476-482
Personality dimensions have been associated with symptoms dimensions in schizophrenic patients (SP). In this paper we study the relationships between symptoms of functional psychoses and personality dimensions in SP and their first-degree relatives (SR), in other psychotic patients (PP) and their first-degree relatives (PR), and in healthy controls in order to evaluate the possible clinical dimensionality of these disorders. Twenty-nine SP, 29 SR, 18 PP, 18 PR and 188 controls were assessed using the temperament and character inventory (TCI-R). Current symptoms were evaluated with positive and negative syndrome scale (PANSS) using the five-factor model described previously (positive [PF], negative [NF], disorganized [DF], excitement [EF] and anxiety/depression [ADF]). Our TCI-R results showed that patients had different personality dimensions from the control group, but in relatives, these scores were not different from controls. With regard to symptomatology, we highlight the relations observed between harm avoidance (HA) and PANSS NF, and between self-transcendence (ST) and PANSS PF. From a personality traits-genetic factors point of view, schizophrenia and other psychosis may be initially differentiated by temperamental traits such as HA. The so-called characterial traits like ST would be associated with the appearance of psychotic symptoms. 相似文献
2.
P. Jylhä M. Ketokivi O. Mantere T. Melartin K. Suominen M. Vuorilehto M. Holma I. Holma E. Isometsä 《European psychiatry》2013,28(8):483-491
ObjectiveTo study, whether temperament and character remain stable over time and whether they differ between patients with and without personality disorder (PD) and between patients with specific PDs.MethodsPatients with (n = 225) or without (n = 285) PD from Jorvi Bipolar Study, Vantaa Depression Study (VDS) and Vantaa Primary Care Depression Study were interviewed at baseline and at 18 months, and in the VDS also at 5 years. A general population comparison group (n = 264) was surveyed by mail.ResultsCompared with non-PD patients, PD patients scored lower on self-directedness and cooperativeness. Cluster B and C PDs associated with high Novelty Seeking and Harm Avoidance, respectively. In logistic regression models, sensitivity and specificity of Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI) dimensions for presence of any PD were 53% and 75%, and for specific PDs from 11% to 41% and from 92% to 100%, respectively. The 18-month test-retest correlations of TCI-R dimensions ranged from 0.58 to 0.82.ConclusionsMedium-term temporal stability of TCI in a clinical population appears good. Character scores differ markedly between PD and non-PD patients, whereas temperament scores differ only somewhat between the specific PDs. However, the TCI dimensions capture only a portion of the differences between PD and non-PD patients. 相似文献
3.
精神分裂症患者心理防御机制与人格特征的相关性分析 总被引:7,自引:1,他引:6
目的 探讨精神分裂症患者心理防御方式和人格特片的特点及二者的相关性。方法 分别运用防御方式问卷 (DSQ)和艾森克个性问卷 (EPQ)对 10 1名精神分裂症患者和 30例正常人群进行防御方式评定和人格测定。结果 与正常对照组相比 ,精神分裂症患者更多采用不成熟和中间型防御方式 (P <0 0 5 )。防御方式与人格特征存在着一定的关联性 (P <0 0 5 )。不成熟型防御方式和中间型防御机制与EPQ的精神质 (P)得分和神经质 (N)得分呈显著正相关 (P <0 0 1) ,成熟防御机制与内外向(E)得分呈显著正相关 (P <0 0 5 )。结论 精神分裂症患者更多地使用不成熟防御机制 ,存在病态人格 ,且者之间存在明显相关性 ,有关结果 ,对于探讨精神分裂症患者的病理心理机制和开展心理治疗有指导意义。 相似文献
4.
Temperament and character of suicide attempters 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
Calati R Giegling I Rujescu D Hartmann AM Möller HJ De Ronchi D Serretti A 《Journal of psychiatric research》2008,42(11):938-945
Temperamental features are strongly associated with suicidal behaviors both in general population and clinical samples. In the present study we considered the association between personality traits, measured by Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI), and suicidal behavior. We analyzed five samples: a German control sample of 1148 healthy individuals; 144 German suicide attempters affected by Mood (n=101), Schizophrenia spectrum (n=20) and Borderline Personality (n=23) Disorders; 46 Italian suicide attempters affected by Mood Disorders (UP=15; BP=31); 76 German non-suicide Mood Disorder patients; 147 Italian non-suicide Mood Disorder patients. Suicide attempters showed higher scores in Harm Avoidance (HA) and lower scores in Self-Directedness (SD) and Cooperativeness (C), when compared to controls. Nevertheless, comparing the German and the Italian suicide attempter groups with the non-suicide Mood Disorder patient groups, no differences were detected. This could be due to the effect of Mood Disorder on personality. In conclusion, the present study reveals the difficulty to disentangle the personality profile of suicide attempters from their psychopathology. Those findings may be useful for cautions in further dissecting this complex phenotype. 相似文献
5.
Branimir Margetić Branka Aukst Margetić Dragutin Ivanec 《Nordic journal of psychiatry》2013,67(6):317-322
AbstractBackground: Understanding the etiology of violence in patients with schizophrenia is an issue of great clinical and public importance. Although personality traits are an important aspect in determining complex behaviors of schizophrenia patients, there is a lack of research on the relationship between personality traits and violence, especially homicidal behavior, in this population.Aim: We aimed to compare temperament and character dimensions between homicidal and other mostly violent forensic patients with schizophrenia, and to determine which temperament and character dimensions are associated with homicidal behavior in these patients.Methods: We recruited 71 male forensic schizophrenia patients without concomitant substance dependence and antisocial personality disorder. The patients were divided into two groups according to trial documentation as: (1) Homicide and attempted homicide group (N 30; 42%), and (2) Other offenses group (N 41; 58%). Patients were assessed by means of the Temperament and Character Inventory and the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale. Differences between groups were tested with t-test.Results: The two groups of patients were similar in their PANSS scores, but the homicidal men were significantly more likely to show higher harm avoidance (HA) scores than the less violent comparison men (t?=?2,876, df-69, p?=?0.005).Conclusions: Our results indicate that forensic schizophrenic patients with higher HA scores would show a greater risk of homicidal violence. Improved understanding of personality traits associated with such behavior is needed in order to prevent homicidal behavior. Importance of these results suggests that further study is needed. 相似文献
6.
Na HR Kang EH Yu BH Woo JM Kim YR Lee SH Kim EJ Lee SY Chung SK 《Psychiatry investigation》2011,8(2):102-106
Objective
Panic disorder (PD) is frequently comorbid with insomnia, which could exacerbate panic symptoms and contribute to PD relapse. Research has suggested that characteristics are implicated in both PD and insomnia. However, there are no reports examining whether temperament and character affect insomnia in PD. Thus, we examined the relationship between insomnia and personality characteristics in PD patients.Methods
Participants were 101 patients, recruited from 6 university hospitals in Korea, who met the DSM-IV-TR criteria for PD. We assessed sleep outcomes using the sleep items of 17-item Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAMD-17)(item 4=onset latency, item 5=middle awakening, and item 6=early awakening) and used the Cloninger''s Temperament and Character Inventory-Revised-Short to assess personality characteristics. To examine the relationship between personality and insomnia, we used analysis of variance with age, sex, and severity of depression (total HAMD scores minus sum of the three sleep items) as the covariates.Results
There were no statistical differences (p>0.1) in demographic and clinical data between patients with and without insomnia. Initial insomnia (delayed sleep onset) correlated to a high score on the temperamental dimension of novelty seeking 3 (NS3)(F1,96=6.93, p=0.03). There were no statistical differences (p>0.1) in NS3 between patients with and without middle or terminal insomnia.Conclusion
The present study suggests that higher NS3 is related to the development of initial insomnia in PD and that temperament and character should be considered when assessing sleep problems in PD patients. 相似文献7.
BACKGROUND: Quantitative endophenotypes are needed to better understand the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. The psychobiological model of temperament and character suggests that personality traits are heritable and regulated by brain systems influencing schizophrenia susceptibility. Thus, measures of temperament and character may serve as schizophrenia-related endophenotypes in individuals with schizophrenia and their non-psychotic siblings. METHODS: Individuals with schizophrenia (n=35), their non-psychotic siblings (n=34), controls (n=63), and their siblings (n=56) participated in a study of the clinical, neurocognitive and neuromorphological characteristics of schizophrenia. A mixed-model approach assessed group differences on the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI). Neurocognitive deficits and psychopathology were correlated with the TCI. Configurations of TCI domains were examined using a generalized linear model. RESULTS: Individuals with schizophrenia and their non-psychotic siblings had higher harm avoidance than controls and their siblings. Individuals with schizophrenia had lower self-directedness and cooperativeness, and higher self-transcendence than their non-psychotic siblings, controls, and the siblings of controls. Neurocognition was not related to temperament and character in individuals with schizophrenia or either control group. In non-psychotic siblings, self-directedness and cooperativeness were correlated with working memory and crystallized IQ. CONCLUSION: Evidence supports harm avoidance as a schizophrenia-related endophenotype. An increased risk of schizophrenia may be associated with asociality (configured as high harm avoidance and low reward dependence), schizotypy (configured as low self-directedness, low cooperativeness, and high self-transcendence), and neurocognitive deficits (poor executive functioning, working/episodic memory, attention, and low IQ). The non-psychotic siblings demonstrated features of a mature character profile including strong crystallized IQ, which may confer protection against psychopathology. 相似文献
8.
Research on phenotypic markers of vulnerability to bipolar disorder has focused on the identification of personality traits uniquely associated with the illness. To expand knowledge in this area, we compared Cloninger's seven temperament and character dimensions in 85 euthymic/subsyndromal bipolar I inpatients and outpatients and 85 age and sex matched community controls. We also examined associations between Cloninger's personality traits and mood state in the patient group. Bipolar subjects were administered the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV (SCID), Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression, and Clinician-Administered Rating Scale for Mania. Controls received the SCID, a family psychiatric history questionnaire, and urine toxicology screen to confirm healthy status. Both groups competed the 240-item Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI). A multivariate analysis of covariance, accounting for demographic factors, was conducted to compare the groups on the TCI. Bipolar I patients scored higher on harm avoidance, lower on self-directedness, and higher on self-transcendence compared to controls. Harm avoidance and self-directedness were correlated with residual depressive symptoms positively and negatively, respectively; persistence was correlated with residual manic symptoms; and selftranscendence was correlated with residual psychotic symptoms in patients. The results indicate that bipolar I subjects do possess personality traits that are significantly different from non-ill individuals. However, only a prospective, longitudinal study may determine whether these traits mark a vulnerability to the disorder, or represent the scarring effect of affective episodes and chronic subsyndromal symptoms. 相似文献
9.
Objective
Personality is defined as the trait-like qualities of a person. However, it has been recently suggested that the state effect of a situation leads to changes in scores on personality assessments. We predicted that traumatic experiences would induce changes not only in personality scores but also in the factor structures of personality assessments.Methods
MethodsaaWe conducted a cross-sectional, case-controlled study using two data sets: a traumatized adolescent sample (n=71) and a non-traumatized adolescent sample (n=296). Personality factor structures were compared between the two samples using exploratory factor analyses for 25 lower-ordered subscales of the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI). In the non-traumatized sample, evaluation of the scree plot suggested a five-factor solution supporting TCI''s original seven-factor model.Results
The traumatized sample showed a three-factor structure representing a biological factor, a social factor and an existential factor. This decrease in number of personality factors was caused by strengthened correlations among personality subscales related to coping with traumatic situations. Cloninger''s psychobiological model of personality (i.e., temperament-character) was adequate in capturing personality traits of non-traumatized adolescents, but the tripartite view of existential psychology (i.e., body-mind-spirit) clearly corresponded to the factor structure of the traumatized adolescents.Conclusion
The three-factor solution of the present traumatized group is consistent with the tripartite model of personality (i.e., body-mind-spirit), while the five-factor solution of the non-traumatized group corresponds to Cloninger''s seven-factor model. This is the first study to describe the state effects of traumatic experiences on personality structure. 相似文献10.
Norio Yasui-Furukori Shoko TsuchimineAyako Kaneda Norio SugawaraMasamichi Ishioka Sunao Kaneko 《Psychiatry research》2013
Although depression has been associated with decreased brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels for specific personality traits, there is a little information regarding the association between peripheral BDNF levels and such traits. The sample consisted of 178 healthy Japanese subjects (age range, 37.4±11.5 years). All subjects filled out the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI). Plasma BDNF levels were measured using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. A simple regression analysis revealed that plasma BDNF levels were significantly correlated with harm avoidance (r=−0.177, p=0.018) and self-directedness scores (r=0.165, p=0.028). Our findings suggest that plasma BDNF levels are associated with depression-related personality traits. 相似文献
11.
Several variables have been identified as risk factors for conversion to overt psychosis in ultra-high risk for psychosis (UHR) individuals. Although almost two-thirds of them do not experience a transition to psychosis, they still exhibit functional disabilities. Other subjective developmental features may be useful for a more precise identification of individuals at UHR. Avoidant behaviors are consistently reported in schizophrenia and in UHR individuals and may be the reflection of a pattern of personality. Thus, personality features in UHR individuals deserves further research. The objective of the present study was to compare temperament and character dimensions between UHR individuals, patients with schizophrenia and healthy controls. One hundred participants (25 UHR individuals, 25 schizophrenia patients and 50 control subjects) where evaluated with the Temperament and Character Inventory-Revised (TCI-R). Univariate ANOVAs followed by Bonferroni tests were used. UHR individuals and schizophrenia patients exhibited higher levels of Harm Avoidance (HA) when compared to control subjects. For HA1 Anticipatory worry vs Uninhibited optimism and HA4 Fatigability & asthenia, UHR and schizophrenia groups showed similar scores and both groups were higher compared to control subjects. With respect to Cooperativeness (CO), UHR and schizophrenia reported lower scores than control subjects, in particular CO2 Empathy vs Social disinterest and CO3 Helpfulness vs unhelpfulness. This study replicates and extends the consideration of HA as a psychopathological related endophenotype and gives us further information of the possible role of personality features in the expression of some of the social dysfunctions observed both in prodromal subjects and schizophrenia patients. 相似文献
12.
Vaios Peritogiannis 《World Journal of Psychiatry》2015,5(1):79-87
The evaluation of personality traits is important for the better understanding of the person suffering from psychosis and for treatment individualization. However literature on patients’ personality and character in such disorders is limited. The aim of this review was to summarize the literature on sensation/novelty seeking (SNS), a trait which is biologically based and highly heritable and is associated with dopamine activity, and refers to a person’s tendency to seek varied, novel, complex, and intense sensations and experiences. A total of 38 studies were included in this review, involving 2808 patients and 2039 healthy controls. There is consistent evidence that this trait is independently associated with alcohol and substance abuse in patients with schizophrenia and related disorders. The estimation of SNS would help clinicians to identify patients at risk for abuse. There is also some evidence that higher SNS levels may relate to medication non-adherence and seem to increase the risk of patients’ aggressive and violent behavior, but studies are scarce. SNS was found not to be related to suicidality, whereas in the fields of patients’ quality of life and psychopathology results are contradictory, but most studies show no possible association. Several studies suggest that SNS is lower in psychotic patients compared to controls, whereas most yield no differences. The evidence for this trait as a potential endophenotype of schizophrenia is weak. SNS may be implicated in psychotic disorders’ course and prognosis in several ways and should be always inquired for. This trait can be reliably measured with the use of easily applicable self-rated instruments, and patients’ accounts could inform clinicians when planning management and delivering individualized treatment. 相似文献
13.
Serretti A Calati R Giegling I Hartmann AM Möller HJ Rujescu D 《Journal of psychiatric research》2009,43(5):519-151
Introduction
Serotonin has been extensively studied in relation to both personality features and suicidal behaviours.Objective
In this study, we considered the association between the serotonin receptor 1A (HTR1A) and 2C (HTR2C) SNPs and personality traits, as measured by the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI), in a sample of suicide patients and healthy volunteers.Methods
The SNPs considered were, for HTR1A rs1423691, rs878567 and rs6295, and for HTR2C rs547536, rs2192372, rs6318, rs2428707, rs4272555 and rs1801412. The sample was composed of three groups: two German samples, consisting of a healthy control group of 289 subjects (42.6% males, mean age: 45.2 ± 14.9) and a psychiatric patient group of 111 suicide attempters (38.7% males, mean age: 39.2 ± 13.6), and an Italian sample, composed of 64 mood disorder patients (35.9% males, mean age: 43.0 ± 14.8). In the German samples all the SNPs were investigated, while in the Italian sample only the HTR1A rs6295 and the HTR2C rs6318 SNPs were considered.Results
Controlling for sex, age and educational level, single markers and haplotypes were not or only marginally associated with personality dimensions.Conclusions
Our study does not support the role of HTR1A and HTR2C gene variants on personality traits in both healthy volunteers and mood disorder patients. 相似文献14.
15.
Da Hye Oh Doo-Heum Park Seung-Ho Ryu Jee Hyun Ha Hong Jun Jeon 《World Journal of Psychiatry》2021,11(6):242-252
BACKGROUNDPanic disorders frequently occur with affective disorders, particularly bipolar disorder. Patients with panic disorder and bipolar disorder are more likely to present with severe symptoms, such as high rates of suicidal behavior, poor symptomatic and functional recovery, and poor drug responses.AIMTo investigate the psychological characteristics of panic disorder patients related to bipolarity.METHODSA total of 254 patients (136 men and 118 women, mean age = 33.48 ± 3.2 years) who were diagnosed with panic disorder were included in the study. Panic disorder with bipolarity (BP+) was defined as a score of ≥ 7 on the Korean version of the Mood Disorder Questionnaire (K-MDQ), and a score lower than 7 was considered as a panic disorder without bipolarity (BP-). Self-report questionnaires were analyzed to examine their association with bipolarity. Psychological tests used in the study were the Mood Disorder Questionnaire (MDQ), Panic Disorder Severity Scale, Beck Depression Inventory, State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI), and Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). Statistical analyses were performed to evaluate the correlation between bipolarity of panic disorder patients and various psychological test results indicative of psychological characteristics.RESULTSPatients with a K-MDQ score of 7 or more were considered to have a history of manic or hypomanic episodes (BP+ group, n = 128), while patients with K-MDQ scores below 7 were defined as those without bipolarity (BP- group, n = 126). The BP+ group were more likely to be unmarried (single 56.2% vs 44.4%, P = 0.008) and younger (30.78 ± 0.59 vs 37.11 ± 3.21, P < 0.001). Additionally, the BP+ group had significantly higher scores on psychological assessment scales, such as the hypochondriasis, psychopathic deviate, masculinity-femininity, psychasthenia, schizophrenia, and hypomania (Ma) in MMPI, and novelty seeking, harm avoidance and self-transcendence in TCI, and STAI (state and trait) compared to the BP- group. In logistic regression analysis, depression in MMPI, self-directedness in TCI, and age were negatively associated with MDQ score, meanwhile, Ma in MMPI and STAI (trait) were positively associated with MDQ score.CONCLUSIONThe result of this study suggests that almost 50% of patients with panic disorder are likely to have hypomanic or manic symptoms, and certain psychological factors are associated bipolarity in panic disorder. 相似文献
16.
《Journal of behavior therapy and experimental psychiatry》2014,45(2):280-284
Background and objectivesCognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) for psychosis has been shown to be effective, but there are recent suggestions that it is less efficacious than initially thought. Metacognitive therapy (MCT), which focuses on metacognitive mechanisms, has led to positive results in other disorders, but has yet to be evaluated in people with schizophrenia spectrum diagnoses. This study evaluates the feasibility of MCT for people with psychotic disorders.MethodsTen participants with schizophrenia spectrum disorders received up to 12 sessions of MCT in an open trial. Outcomes included psychiatric symptoms measured using the PANSS, at baseline, 9 months (end of treatment) and at 12 months (follow-up), as well as dimensions of hallucinations and delusions, emotional dysfunction, self-rated recovery, social functioning and metacognitive beliefs.ResultsT-tests and Wilcoxon's signed ranks tests revealed significant beneficial effects on several outcomes at end-of-treatment and follow-up. Cohen's d effect sizes were moderate to large (for PANSS total, d = 1.0 at end of treatment; d = 0.95 at follow-up). A response rate analysis found 50% and 40% of participants achieved at least a 25% reduction in PANSS total scores by end of therapy and follow-up, respectively. Exploratory analyses revealed that metacognitive beliefs significantly changed over treatment and follow-up periods.LimitationsThis study had no control group and was not randomised; therefore, it is likely that effect sizes were inflated.ConclusionsThis study provides preliminary evidence that MCT is a feasible treatment for people with psychosis. An adequately powered randomised controlled trial is warranted. 相似文献
17.
目的探讨人格障碍评估(PDA)在精神分裂症患者中的临床应用价值。方法用PDA和PDQ-4^+分别对39例精神分裂症患者和80例正常人进行评估。结果在PDA中,精神分裂症组的9种类型的人格障碍项目分和总分均高于正常组,都达到极显著性差异,精神分裂症组各人格障碍类型的发生率分布中,C类群占有相当的比例,其中回避型占53.85%,强迫型占41.02%,A类群中,偏执型占18.42%,在PDQ-^4+中,也是回避型和强迫型所占的比例最高,分别为42.10%,和36.80%,在因素分析中,采用主成份分析及方差极大旋转的方法,提取了3个公因子,它们的方差累计贡献率为63.54%,旋转前的因子距陈显示9个分量表都有中等以上的负荷。结论PDA可反映出精神分裂症患者的人格障碍共病情况,有临床应用价值。 相似文献
18.
父母人格及教养方式对精神分裂症发病的影响 总被引:4,自引:1,他引:3
目的:了解父母人格及教养方式对精神分裂症发病的影响。方法:采用定式问卷的方法,对60例精神分裂症患者及其父母分别进行艾森克个性问卷(EPQ)及父母教养方式问卷评定(EMBU)。随机抽取社区健康人60例及其父母作为对照。结果:Logistic多元逐步回归分析显示:父亲组进入方程的分别为P(精神质)、FSS1(情感温暖与理解)、FSS2(惩罚、严厉)和FSS5(拒绝、否认)。母亲组进入方程的分别为P( 相似文献
19.
Muris P Meesters C van den Hout A Wessels S Franken I Rassin E 《Child psychiatry and human development》2007,38(3):171-181
Pain catastrophizing is generally viewed as an important cognitive factor underlying chronic pain. The present study examined
personality and temperament correlates of pain catastrophizing in a sample of young adolescents (N = 132). Participants completed the Pain Catastrophizing Scale for Children, as well as scales for measuring sensitivity of
the behavioral inhibition and behavioral activation systems (BIS-BAS), and various reactive and regulative temperament traits.
Results demonstrated that BIS, reactive temperament traits (fear and anger-frustration), and perceptual sensitivity were positively
related to pain catastrophizing, whereas regulative traits (attention control, inhibitory control) were negatively associated
with this cognitive factor. Further, regression analyses demonstrated that only BIS and the temperamental traits of fear and
perceptual sensitivity accounted for a unique proportion of the variance in adolescents’ pain catastrophizing scores. 相似文献
20.
De Luca A Rizzardi M Torrente I Alessandroni R Salvioli GP Filograsso N Dallapiccola B Novelli G 《Neurogenetics》2001,3(2):79-82
We have examined the relationship between the common dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4) exon III repeat polymorphism and infants' behavior measured with the Italian version of the Early and Revised Infancy Temperament
Questionnaires (EITQ/RITQ) in 122 Italian neonates at 1 and 5 months of life, when the genetic contribution to the behavior
can be more clearly assessed. Two-way (genotype × age) analysis of variance revealed a significant correlation with the temperamental
subscale of adaptability [F(1, 120)=5.26, P<0.02]. At 1 month of life (early assessment), infants with long (L) DRD4 alleles presented significantly low scores (L 2.61±0.073;
S 2.84+0.79; Newman-Keuls P=0.03) in comparison with the high scores of infants with short (S) alleles (L 2.4±0.059; S 2.25±0.57). These differences
were not detected at 5 months of life (late assessment), denoting a strong environmental effect at this age on the genetic
background. These results confirm and extend the genetic influence of the DRD4 gene in human temperament at birth.
Electronic Publication 相似文献