嗅鞘细胞对神经干细胞向胆碱能神经元分化的影响

目的：研究不同浓度嗅鞘细胞（OECs）对神经干细胞（NSCs）向胆碱能神经元分化的影响,为细胞联合移植治疗阿尔茨海默病提供理论依据。方法：分别体外培养NSCs和OECs。将5×10^4/mL的NSCs分别与1×10^4/mL、1×10^6/ mL、1×10^8/mL OECs共培养7 d,同时设立对照组（不加OECs）。用免疫细胞化学法检测胆碱乙酰化酶阳性细胞表达。结果：共培养7 d后,OECs能促进NSCs向胆碱能神经元分化,以1×10^6/mLOECs与NSCs共培养作用最明显,与对照组比较差异有显著统计学意义（P〈0.01）。结论：OECs可促进NSCs向胆碱能神经元分化。     

神经干细胞转染酪氨酸羟化酶基因后的分化

目的 探讨神经干细胞（NSCs）转梁酪氨酸羟化酶（TH）基因后的分化。方法 从胚胎16天Wistar大鼠室管膜前下周围区分离、增殖、鉴定NSCs；将TH基因和缺陷性逆转录病毒载体N2A构建成真核表达质粒，以电穿孔将其转入PA317包装细胞内；收集PA317包装产生的逆转录病毒颗粒，感染体外培养的NSCs，经G418筛选，获得成功转染TH基因的NSCs克隆；分别以0.4ng/ml bFGF和5％胎牛血清诱导转染及未转染TH基因的NSCs分化，比较TH基因转染及不同诱导方式对NSCs分化的影响，同时在分化细胞内检测TH的表达。结果 以0.4ng/ml bFGF诱导可使95％以上的NSCs分化为神经元，而5％FBS诱导则大多分化为神经胶质细胞，无论是否转染TH基因，神经元及神经胶质细胞的分化比例不成生改变；TH基因转染后能在神经干细胞的子代细胞内高效、稳定表达。结论 TH基因转染不影响NSCs的分化潜能，TH能在神经干细胞的子代细胞中有效表达0.4ng/ml bFGF诱导可以促使NSCs分化为神经元。     

碱性成纤维细胞生长因子对血管性痴呆大鼠海马胆碱能神经元的影响

目的皮下注射碱性成纤维细胞生长因子(bFGF)于血管性痴呆大鼠,研究用药前后大鼠海马胆碱能神经元的变化。方法制作血管性痴呆(VD)大鼠模型,随机取用VD大鼠模型12只,分治疗组6只,痴呆组6只。另外,取假手术组6只。皮下注射bFGF于治疗组中血管性痴呆大鼠。治疗5周后,以Morris水迷宫定位航行试验和空间探索试验来检测大鼠的学习记忆能力,乙酰胆碱转移酶(ChAT)免疫组织化学染色观察海马CA1区胆碱能神经元数目的变化。结果治疗组大鼠海马CA1区胆碱能神经元数目较痴呆组明显增多。结论皮下注射bFGF后能迁移至海马,诱导海马产生具有ChAT活性神经元,所产生的ChAT活性神经元可能就是胆碱能神经元。     

Combination of bFGF, heparin and laminin induce the generation of dopaminergic neurons from rat neural stem cells both in vitro and in vivo

Neural stem cells (NSCs) are self-renewing and pluripotent, which can differentiate into neurons, astrocytes and oligodendrocytes. Due to these properties, NSCs are supposed to be an ideal candidate to clinical purpose while research on cell replacement therapy to treat neural diseases has been widely investigated recently. In this article, we demonstrated a new and efficient method to induce the generation of proliferative dopaminergic neurons from rat NSCs in the presence of bFGF, heparin and laminin both in vitro and in vivo. These cells were testified to survive in the grafted 6-Hydroxy-Dopamine (6-OHDA) lesioned rat for at least 1 month. More importantly, migration to close host tissue was observed on day 30 post-transplantation. In this regard, we anticipated that this technology may advance stem cell-based therapy to replace lost neurons in neural injury or neurodegenerative disorders.     

Astrocytes enhance long-term survival of cholinergic neurons differentiated from human fetal neural stem cells

Establishment of an in vitro model of human cholinergic neurons would be highly desirable for understanding and developing treatment for Alzheimer's and motoneuron diseases. Previously we reported that the combination of basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), heparin, and laminin directs human fetal neural stem cells to form cholinergic neurons. One problem, however, is that long-term in vitro survival of these cells is low. Our goal for this study was to determine whether astrocytes or their secreted factors enhance differentiation and survival of cholinergic neurons under long-term differentiation conditions. We demonstrate here that astrocytes or astrocyte conditioned media did not enhance cholinergic differentiation but did increase the long-term survival of differentiated human neural stem cells, particularly cholinergic neurons. We further show that astrocytes protected long-term-differentiated cells from apoptotic cell death, which is at least partially mediated by astrocyte-secreted bFGF. Our findings indicate that long-term survival of human stem cell-derived cholinergic neurons requires trophic factors from nonneuronal cells. This data may provide insights into the development of an in vitro model of long-term cultured human cholinergic neurons useful for understanding of the mechanisms of cholinergic differentiation and developing treatments for neurological diseases.     

Low voltage-activated calcium and fast tetrodotoxin-resistant sodium currents define subtypes of cholinergic and noncholinergic neurons in rat basal forebrain

Neurons of the basal forebrain (BF) possess unique combinations of voltage-gated membrane currents. Here, we describe subtypes of rat basal forebrain neurons based on patch-clamp analysis of low-voltage activated (LVA) calcium and tetrodotoxin-resistant (TTX-R) sodium currents combined with single-cell RT-PCR analysis. Neurons were identified by mRNA expression of choline acetyltransferase (ChAT+, cholinergic) and glutamate decarboxylase (GAD67, GABAergic). Four cell types were encountered: ChAT+, GAD+, ChAT+/GAD+ and ChAT-/GAD- cells. Both ChAT+ and ChAT+/GAD+ cells (71/75) displayed LVA currents and most (34/39) expressed mRNA for LVA Ca(2+) channel subunits. Ca(v)3.2 was detected in 31/34 cholinergic neurons and Ca(v)3.1 was expressed in 6/34 cells. Three cells expressed both subunits. No single neurons showed Ca(v)3.3 mRNA expression, although BF tissue expression was observed. In young rats (2-4 mo), ChAT+/GAD+ cells displayed larger LVA current densities compared to ChAT+ neurons, while these latter neurons displayed an age-related increase in current densities. Most (29/38) noncholinergic neurons (GAD+ and ChAT-/GAD-) possessed fast TTX-R sodium currents resembling those mediated by Na(+) channel subunit Na(v)1.5. This subunit was expressed predominately in noncholinergic neurons. No cholinergic cells (0/75) displayed fast TTX-R currents. The TTX-R currents were faster and larger in GAD+ neurons compared to ChAT-/GAD- neurons. The properties of ChAT+/GAD+ neurons resemble those of ChAT+ neurons, rather than of GAD+ neurons. These results suggest novel features of subtypes of cholinergic and noncholinergic neurons within the BF that may provide new insights for understanding normal BF function.     

Nerve Growth Factor and Basic Fibroblast Growth Factor Protect Cholinergic Neurons Against Quinolinic Acid Excitotoxicity in Rat Neostriatum

In the present work we have characterized a possible mechanism leading to the early survival of neostriatal cholinergic neurons after quinolinic acid injection. Different doses of quinolinic acid were injected in rat neostriatum and two different parameters were analysed 7 days after the lesion: choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) activity and nerve growth factor (NGF) levels. We have observed that ChAT activity decreased (until 68 nmol quinolinic acid) and NGF levels increased (until 34 nmol quinolinic acid) in a dose-dependent manner. In order to characterize the time-course of the lesion on NGF levels and ChAT activity, and the possible protective effect of NGF and basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) on cholinergic neurons, we have used the quinolinic acid dose (68 nmol) at which the first decrease of ChAT activity was observed. ChAT activity and NGF levels showed different patterns of response to quinolinic acid injection, since the maximal effect was reached at 1 day for ChAT activity and at 2 days for NGF levels. NGF or bFGF simultaneously injected with quinolinic acid (68 nmol) completely prevented the decrease in ChAT activity in a dose-dependent manner but NGF was more effective than bFGF. Furthermore, differences observed in ChAT activity after NGF but not bFGF treatment were correlated with changes in the number of ChAT immunoreactive cells. Finally, we have also observed that, although bFGF alone was not able to modify NGF levels, bFGF simultaneously injected with quinolinic acid produced an increase of NGF levels higher than that observed after quinolinic acid injection alone. Our results show that NGF and bFGF protect striatal cholinergic neurons against quinolinic acid injury, and bFGF is able to potentiate the increase of NGF after the lesion, suggesting a cooperative action between different trophic factors in neuronal protection after excitotoxic injury. Thus, administration of trophic factors may be relevant in the prevention and treatment of neurodegenerative disorders, such as Huntington's disease.     

Effects of basic fibroblast growth factor on survival and choline acetyltransferase development of spinal cord neurons.

To investigate the biological role of basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) for the development of the spinal cord we studied the in vitro and in vivo effects of this protein on survival and choline acetyltransferase (ChAT)-activity of embryonic chick and rat spinal cord neurons. In vitro, bFGF (ED50 1-2.8 ng/ml) supported the survival of embryonic neurons from the ventral part of the rat spinal cord (ventral spinal cord, vsc), including motoneurons. Addition of bFGF (100 ng/ml) increased the ChAT-activity in embryonic chick vsc cultures to 150% as compared to untreated cultures (100%). The effect of bFGF was dose-dependent. In vivo-application of bFGF resulted in a similar increase of ChAT-activity in chick spinal cord. Since bFGF stimulates the ChAT-activity of spinal cord neurons in vivo and in vitro we therefore conclude that this protein may have a physiological function for the transmitter development of cholinergic spinal cord neurons.     

TrkA基因修饰、诱导神经干细胞分化为胆碱能神经元

目的研究外源性TrkaA基因修饰C17．2神经干细胞，对神经干细胞定向分化的影响。方法采用脂质体法将携带有TrkA基因的真核表达载体pcDNA3．1（＋）/TrkA转染C17．2神经干细胞，Western blot观察转染后基因表达情况；将正常生长的C17．2神经干细胞随机分成两组（A组和C组），将重组质粒转染阳性的C17．2神经干细胞随机分成两组（B组和D组），并用100ng／mg神经生长因子（NCF）分别作用于C组及D组，应用间接免疫荧光染色方法，观察各组细胞胆碱乙酰转移酶（CHAT）的表达。结果Western blot结果显示转染组TrkA蛋白表达明显高于非转染组，说明外源性TrkA基因导入靶细胞，并实现蛋白表达；间接免疫荧光染色显示，经NGF孵育的转染组细胞（D组）约有26％呈ChAT阳性，而非转染组（C组）约为9％，未经NGF孵育的A、B组未观察到CHAT阳性细胞。结论应用外源性TrkA基因修饰神经干细胞，造成TrkA基因过度表达，在NGF作用下，可以诱导更多的神经干细胞向胆碱能神经元分化。     

远志总皂苷对海马神经干细胞定向分化的作用及对Mash1表达的影响

目的 观察远志总皂苷(TEN)对体外培养海马神经干细胞向胆碱能神经元定向分化的作用,并进一步分析其对神经干细胞Mashl表达的影响. 方法 分离新生24h内昆明小鼠海马,悬浮培养神经干细胞,取第3代神经干细胞进行分化诱导.实验分4组:空白对照组、5mg/LTEN组、20mg/LTEN组、100mg/LTEN组.应用免疫组织化学法检测神经干细胞中神经元特异性烯醇化酶(NSE)及胆碱乙酰转移酶(ChAT)阳性细胞比率;采用RT-PCR半定量法检测各组神经干细胞Mashl的表达.结果 免疫组化结果显示:与对照组比较,TEN组神经干细胞向神经元及胆碱能神经元分化的比率明显升高,以20 mg/L剂量最明显,差异均有统计学意义(P<0.05);20 mg/L组Mashl的表达(0.9426±0.07286)亦明显高于对照组(0.7141±0.04016),差异具有统计学意义(P<0.05). 结论 TEN能够促进体外培养的海马神经干细胞向神经元及胆碱能神经元定向分化,能够促进神经干细胞中Mashl的表达.     

Pathway for interferon-gamma to promote the differentiation of cholinergic neurons in rat embryonic basal forebrain/septal nuclei

BACKGROUND: The supernatant of interferon-gamma (IFNγ) co-cultured with neonatal rat cortical glia can promote the cells in embryonic basal forebrain/septal nuclei to differentiate into cholinergic neurons, but the mechanism is still unclear. OBJECTIVE: To analyze the pathways for IFNγ to promote the differentiation of primarily cultured cholinergic neurons in rat embryonic basal forebrain/septal nuclei through culture in different conditioned medium. DESIGN: A controlled experiment taking cells as the observational target. SETTINGS: Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Youjiang Medical College for Nationalities; Department of Cell Biology, Beijing University Health Science Center. MATERIALS: Sixty-four pregnant Wistar rats for 16 days (250–350 g) and 84 Wistar rats (either male or female, 5–7 g) of 0–1 day after birth were provided by the experimental animal department of Beijing University Health Science Center. Rat IFNγ were provided by Gibco Company; Glial fibrillary acidic protein by Huamei Company. METHODS: The experiments were carried out in the Department of Cell Biology, Beijing University Health Science Center and Daheng Image Company of Chinese Academy of Science from July 1995 to December 2002. ① Interventions: The nerve cells in the basal forebrain/septal nuclei of the pregnant Wistar rats for 16 days were primarily cultured, and then divided into four groups: Blank control group (not any supernatant and medium was added); Control group (added by mixed glial cell or astrocyte conditioned medium); IFNγ group (added by mixed glial cell or astrocyte conditioned medium+IFNγ). Antibody group (added by mixed glial cell or astrocyte conditioned medium+IFNγ+Ab-IFNγ). Mixed glial cell or astrocyte conditioned medium was prepared using cerebral cortex of Wistar rats of 0–1 day after birth. ② Evaluation: The immunohistochemical method was used to perform the choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) staining of cholinergic neurons. The ChAT positive cells were counted. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Comparison of ChAT positive cells in rat basal forebrain and septal nuclei in different conditioned medium. RESULTS: ① ChAT positive cells in mixed glial cell conditioned medium: The ChAT positive cells in the IFNγ group and antibody group were significantly more than those in the control group (P < 0.01). ② ChAT positive cells in astrocyte conditioned medium: The ChAT positive cells in the IFNγ group were significantly more than those in the control group, but there was no significant difference between the antibody group and control group (P > 0.05). CONCLUSION: IFNγ cannot directly promote the differentiation of cholinergic neurons, but plays a role through activating glial cells (except astrocytes) to produce IFNγ like molecules.     

Human neural stem cells over-expressing choline acetyltransferase restore cognition in rat model of cognitive dysfunction

A human neural stem cell (NSC) line over-expressing human choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) gene was generated and these F3.ChAT NSCs were transplanted into the brain of rat Alzheimer disease (AD) model which was induced by application of ethylcholine mustard aziridinium ion (AF64A) that specifically denatures cholinergic nerves and thereby leads to memory deficit as a salient feature of AD. Transplantation of F3.ChAT human NSCs fully recovered the learning and memory function of AF64A animals, and induced elevated levels of acetylcholine (ACh) in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Transplanted F3.ChAT human NSCs were found to migrate to various brain regions including cerebral cortex, hippocampus, striatum and septum, and differentiated into neurons and astrocytes. The present study demonstrates that brain transplantation of human NSCs over-expressing ChAT ameliorates complex learning and memory deficits in AF64A-cholinotoxin-induced AD rat model.     

Characterization of a neurotrophic factor produced by cultured astrocytes involved in the regulation of subcortical cholinergic neurons.

When dissociated subcortical cells were cultured in the presence of conditioned medium of relatively differentiated astrocytes (ACM), a marked increase was observed in the expression of choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), an enzyme required for the synthesis of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Astrocytes from the target regions of subcortical neurons, the hippocampus and the cerebral cortex, produced neurotrophic factor consistently more than those derived from the nontarget region, the cerebellum. The production of cholinergic trophic activity was increased with the maturation of astrocytes. Even though, nerve growth factor (NGF) and ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) are known cholinergic trophic compounds produced by astrocytes in vitro, a large part of the neurotrophic activity in our ACM was not related to either of these 2 factors. This is because (i) ACM and NGF produced an additive effect on ChAT activity, (ii) only a small proportion of the cholinergic trophic activity in ACM was abolished by anti-NGF antibody, and (iii) treatment with CNTF had no effect on ChAT activity of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons. On the other hand, when cholinergic neurons are cultured on a preformed layer of astrocytes, addition of basal fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) failed to increase further the ChAT activity. Similarly the effects of ACM and bFGF were not additive. A large proportion of the cholinergic trophic activity in ACM was neutralized by anti-bFGF antibody. These findings would suggest that the trophic activity on septal cholinergic neurons in our ACM was due to bFGF or a bFGF-like compound.     

神经干细胞诱导分化神经元培养方法的建立

目的:诱导大鼠神经干细胞(NSCs)向神经元细胞系分化,建立体外培养神经元的模型。方法:从Wistar大鼠胚胎大脑分离、培养NSCs,小剂量碱性成纤维生长因子(bFGF)无血清条件培养基诱导NSCs定向分化,以免疫组化技术检测,与直接培养的海马细胞中NF200阳性细胞数以及神经元生长情况进行比较。结果:应用小剂量bFGF无血清培养基诱导NSCs定向分化7、10d,神经元生长良好,通过免疫组化检测到NF200阳性神经元数量多于直接培养的海马神经元(P<0.01)。结论:应用小剂量bFGF无血清条件培养基对NSCs进行定向诱导分化,培养的神经元生长良好,可作为体外神经元培养模型之一。     

Neurons with galanin innervate cholinergic cells in the human basal forebrain and galanin and acetylcholine coexist

Immunocytochemistry with antibodies against cholinacetyltransferase (ChAT) and the novel peptide galanin (GA) were conducted as a single label or as double label experiments on the basal forebrain nuclei of brains from eleven human subjects without prior history of neurological disease. ChAT positive or cholinergic neurons form the major population of cells in the basal nucleus of Meynert. A minor portion of these ChAT positive neurons demonstrate a coexistence with GA positive immunoreactivity suggesting that they are cholinergic/GA neurons. Small fusiform neurons with long dendrites and complex local axonal networks are GA immunoreactive and are local circuit interneurons. The cholinergic cells in the basal nucleus are innervated by a fine network of GA immunoreactive axons and terminals which enwrap their perikarya and dendrites. It is suggested that GA in local circuit interneurons may provide a significant control or modulation of the cholinergic neurons and of cholinergic functions within the basal nucleus. In human diseases which feature a destruction of the basal forebrain cholinergic neurons, surviving GA neurons may inhibit most remaining cholinergic neurons and their function, with severe consequences.     

Postnatal development of nestin positive neurons in rat basal forebrain: Different onset and topography with choline acetyltransferase and parvalbumin expression

Our previous studies identified a sub-population of cholinergic neurons which express nestin in the rostral part of the basal forebrain (BF) in normal adult rats. In the present study, the postnatal developmental patterns of nestin, choline acetyl transferase (ChAT) and parvalbumin (PV) positive neurons were explored by means of immunohistochemistry combined with immunofluorescence double label methods. Compared with early onset of ChAT expression (from P1) and delayed onset of PV expression (from P16), nestin positive activity was detected in the BF from P9 and co-expressed by parts of the ChAT positive neurons within the same region during the whole postnatal development process. However, ChAT and PV were not coexpressed by the neurons within the medial septum-diagonal band of Broca (MS-DBB) of BF. These results might imply a composite of separate development patterns displayed by different subpopulations of cholinergic neurons (nestin positive cholinergic neurons and nestin negative cholinergic neurons) within this region. Moreover, the topographic distribution of nestin, ChAT and PV positive neurons also showed different characteristics. In summary, our present study revealed a remarkable timing and topographic difference on the postnatal development of the nestin expression within the MS-DBB of BF compared with ChAT and PV expression. It is further suggested that nestin is re-expressed by cholinergic neurons in the BF after differentiation but not persisted from neuronal precursor cells.     

Development of septal cholinergic neurons in culture: plating density and glial cells modulate effects of NGF on survival, fiber growth, and expression of transmitter-specific enzymes

To characterize the role of NGF in the development of forebrain cholinergic neurons, we established primary cell culture systems to grow these cells under controlled in vitro conditions. Cultures of dissociated cells were prepared from the septal area of fetal (E17) rats, which contained part of the group of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons. Cultures were treated either with NGF (100 ng/ml) or with an antiserum against NGF (1:500 dilution). To assess the influence of non-neuronal cells, 2 types of high-density cultures were prepared: mixed neuronal-glial cultures and pure neuronal cultures. Cholinergic neurons were identified using choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) immunocytochemistry and AChE cytochemistry. Receptors for NGF (NGF-R) were located immunocytochemically using monoclonal antibodies against rat NGF-R. We report that, first, NGF-R are exclusively localized on cholinergic neurons in septal cultures. All neurons labeled with antibodies against NGF-R also contained AChE. Twenty-one percent of all AChE-positive neurons were not stained in NGF-R immunocytochemistry (AChE has earlier been shown to be colocalized with ChAT in septal cultures). Second, NGF treatment increases and anti-NGF treatment reduces the number of AChE-positive neurons in cultures of low plating density, suggesting that NGF promotes survival of septal cholinergic neurons in these cultures. In cultures of high plating density, NGF increased the number of NGF-R and ChAT-positive neurons without affecting the number of AChE-positive neurons in these cultures. These results suggest that exogenous NGF is not required for survival of cholinergic neurons in high-density cultures but stimulates the expression of ChAT and NGF-R. Third, NGF stimulates fiber growth of septal cholinergic neurons, as assessed by computerized image analysis of AChE-positive neurons. Fourth, NGF specifically increases ChAT and AChE activities in septal cultures. These NGF-mediated increases in enzyme activities are more pronounced when neurons are grown together with glial cells. In pure neuronal cultures, NGF increased ChAT and AChE activities by 101 and 16%, and in mixed neuronal-glial cultures by 318 and 87%, respectively. Anti-NGF blocked the effects of NGF but failed to reduce ChAT and AChE activities below control levels in cultures of high plating density. Fifth, astrocytes attenuate the expression of ChAT and AChE by septal neurons in the absence of NGF.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)     

胚鼠室管膜神经干细胞体外诱导分化实验研究

目的探寻胚鼠室管膜分离培养及诱导分化为神经干细胞(NSCs)的可行性及规律性,为进一步寻找非神经组织性NSCs种子源提供阳性参照。方法将分离的胚脑室管膜组织以神经干细胞培养液孵育,确定神经干细胞的最佳体外生存环境,细胞培养所涉及的细胞因子主要有:EGF、bFGF和LIF(分别为20 ng/ml)。以细胞克隆方法判断神经干细胞增殖;以镜下细胞形态初步判断神经干细胞分化。结果胚鼠室管膜源性神经干细胞在相应培养条件下呈现出神经干细胞快速增殖,形成由多细胞组成的细胞球(神经球);进一步将这些细胞球分离成单细胞并重新以克隆密度培养,单个的细胞又很快变成岛屿状神经球。神经干细胞连续培养可进一步有小芽形成并发育成突起状结构、建立神经纤维联系,其中有的胞体增大,逐渐发育为较成熟的长突起细胞,长突起相互连接、交织成网。结论由胚鼠室管膜分离培养神经干细胞是可行的;神经干细胞在发育分化过程,基本上遵循着游离神经干细胞、神经细胞球、分化神经元/胶质细胞的生长规律,显现出神经干细胞有别于一般神经细胞的增殖及多分化特性。     

Cholinergic cell loss and cognitive impairments following intraventricular or intradentate injection of colchicine

Bilateral injections of colchicine (3.5 or 7.0 micrograms/0.5 microliters/site) into either the dentate gyrus or the lateral cerebroventricles (i.c.v.) of Sprague-Dawley rats produced specific behavioral, histopathological and neurochemical alterations. Colchicine, administered via either route, produced impairments in the performance of a radial-arm maze task which did not subside during 8 weeks of testing. Intradentate colchicine decreased (1) the thickness of both blades of the dentate granule cell layer, (2) the size of the overlying molecular layer, (3) hippocampal volume, and (4) the number of cholinergic neurons in the medial septum/vertical limb of the diagonal band (MS/VLDB). I.c.v. administration of colchicine did not alter any index of hippocampal morphology but did significantly decrease the number of cholinergic neurons in the MS/VLDB. An analysis of the time course of cholinotoxicity revealed that both intradentate and i.c.v. colchicine decreased choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) activity and high affinity choline uptake (HAChU) in the hippocampus at 1 and 3, but not 9, weeks following surgery. Furthermore, i.c.v. colchicine decreased ChAT activity in the septum at both 3 and 9 weeks following surgery. Neither route of administration altered ChAT or HAChU in the frontal cortex, olfactory bulb or striatum. The decreases in presynaptic cholinergic parameters were paralleled by a reduction in acetylcholinesterase staining in the hippocampus which appeared to recover within 9 weeks. These data suggest that intradentate colchicine produces either (i) transsynaptic degeneration of cholinergic neurons due to a loss of their target sites (granule cells in the dentate gyrus), (ii) a direct cholinotoxic effect, or (iii) a combination of these mechanisms. The i.c.v. injection of colchicine appears to exert a direct toxic effect on cholinergic neurons and/or nerve terminals that results in the death of these neurons. Colchicine may be a useful tool for investigating the behavioral and neurobiological properties of the septohippocampal cholinergic pathway and its response to injury.     

Development of cholinergic pedunculopontine neurons in vitro: comparison with cholinergic septal cells and response to nerve growth factor, ciliary neuronotrophic factor, and retinoic acid

The well-documented role of nerve growth factor (NGF) in the function of cholinergic neurons in the mammalian basal forebrain can be regarded as a paradigm for the action of trophic substances on CNS neurons. Although several growth factors have been identified in recent years, the specificities and importance of such factors for the development of the nervous system are still unknown. In the present study it has been tested whether NGF affects the group of pedunculopontine cholinergic neurons. This population, which has been described in detail only recently, is located more caudally than but resembles, in some aspects, the basal forebrain cholinergic neurons. The cell bodies are located in the metencephalic pedunculopontine and dorsolateral tegmental nuclei. Similar to the forebrain cholinergic neurons, they are medium to large in size and ascend centrally with long axons. Projection areas are widespread throughout the mesencephalon and diencephalon. Dissociated pontine and septal cells of fetal rat brain (embryo ages E14 to E17) were grown in culture for 7 to 14 days in the presence or absence of NGF. Furthermore, a possible action of retinoic acid and ciliary neuronotrophic factor (CNTF) on cholinergic neurons of both the basal forebrain and the pontine area were tested. Differentiation of cultured cholinergic neurons was assessed by biochemical determination of choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) activity and by immunocytochemical staining for ChAT. NGF in concentrations of 1 to 1,000 ng/ml medium increased the number of immunostained cells and the staining intensity in ChAT immunocytochemistry and enhanced ChAT activity by at least 100% above control levels in septal cultures, thus confirming earlier results. In marked contrast, the same concentrations of NGF failed to influence ChAT activity or immunocytochemical staining in cultures of the pontine area. Retinoic acid (10(-8) M to 10(-5) M) and CNTF (0.2 and 2.0 ng/ml, corresponding to 1 and 10 trophic units, as defined in the ciliary ganglion cell assay) failed to enhance ChAT activity in either culture system and did not potentiate the NGF-mediated increase of ChAT activity in septal cultures. Our results, which indicate that pedunculopontine cholinergic neurons do not respond to NGF during development, are in line with those of NGF-receptor visualization studies that failed to demonstrate such receptors on cholinergic pontine cells in postnatal and adult rats. The findings further underline the specificity of NGF action in the central nervous system and, in particular, do not support the idea of transmitter-specific neurotrophic factors.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)