Measurement and Prediction of Motor Proficiency in Children Using the Bayley Infant Scales and the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test

A sample of 76 Irish girls and boys of about 9 years of age, for whom neonatal (birthweight, Apgar and Neonatal Behavioural Assessment Scale) and infancy measures (Bayley Infant Scales at 18 months) were available, were administered the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (BOTMP). The main focus of this paper is on a longitudinal analysis of the relationships between the neonatal and infancy measures and the BOTMP administered at about 9 years. However, since the literature expresses some doubts about the basis of the division of the BOTMP subtests into fine motor and gross motor groups and about the meaningfulness of the overall battery score, an initial statistical analysis was undertaken to examine these construct validity issues with this sample of children. This analysis indicated that the division of subtests into fine motor and gross motor skills groups, as formulated by the BOTMP, is not supported. The longitudinal analysis, therefore, focused mainly on subtest scores and provided some evidence of a degree of continuity in measured motor proficiency between birth, 18 months and the prepubertal period. Continuity was more evident for female children.     

Review of the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency,Second Edition (BOT-2)

The Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (Bruininks, 1978) is a standardized, norm-referenced measure used by physical therapists and occupational therapists in clinic and school practice settings. This test recently was revised and published as the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, Second Edition (BOT-2; Bruininks & Bruininks, 2005). The BOT-2 is an individually administered measure of fine and gross motor skills of children and youth, 4 through 21 years of age. It is intended for use by practitioners and researchers as a discriminative and evaluative measure to characterize motor performance, specifically in the areas of fine manual control, manual coordination, body coordination, and strength and agility. The BOT-2 has both a Complete Form and a Short Form. This review of the BOT-2 describes its development and psychometric properties; appraises strengths and limitations; and discusses implications for use by physical therapists and occupational therapists.     

Effects of Modified Instructions on Peabody Developmental Motor Scales,Second Edition,Gross Motor Scores in Children with Typical Development

Aims: The current study assessed whether modifying instructions on the Peabody Developmental Motor Scales, Second Edition (PDMS-2) affected scores in children with typical development. Methods: The gross motor portion of the PDMS-2 was administered twice, 2–10?days apart, to 38 children. Age- and gender-matched groups received instructions in both standard and modified formats, with order depending on group assignment. Results: Gross Motor Quotient results showed an effect for instruction type (p?=?.03) and an interaction between instruction type and order (p?=?.02). Improved scores for those given modified instructions during the second session indicated the interaction favored modifications. Stationary scores showed an effect for instruction type (p?=?.01) and an interaction between instruction type and age (p?=?.02). Object Manipulation scores showed an interaction between instruction type and order only (p =.002); Locomotion scores showed no significant changes (p?=?.25). Percentile rank changes ranged from 9% to 22% across subtests. Conclusions: Findings suggested instruction modifications may change PDMS-2 gross motor scores, even in children with typical development. Findings also suggested normative scores should not be reported if modifications were used during testing. Research is needed to determine optimal cues for the best representation of true motor ability during standardized assessment.     

A 22-year French Experience with Solid Tumors in Children with Down Syndrome

Malignant solid tumors have rarely been reported in children with Down syndrome (DS) and are not well known. The authors collected from 1980 to 2001 all cases of solid tumors observed in DS patients aged from birth to 19 years within the network of the Société Française d'Oncologie Pédiatrique (SFOP). Only 21 cases were observed, with a peculiar distribution: a lack of intracranial tumors and embryonal neoplasms combined with an overrepresentation of lymphomas and germ cell tumors. The treatment of solid tumors in DS is difficult, due to physical and psychological impairments, different pharmacogenetic profile, and associated malformations.     

Longitudinal Performance of Infants with Cerebral Palsy on the Test of Infant Motor Performance and on the Alberta Infant Motor Scale

Understanding the natural history of development in children with cerebral palsy (CP) is important for studying the consequences of early intervention. The purpose of this paper is to present results on the Test of Infant Motor Performance (TIMP) from 0-4 months of age and on the Alberta Infant Motor Scale (AIMS) from 3 to 12 months of age in a group of infants later diagnosed as having CP. Ages at which infants with CP were first recognized as having delayed motor performance on each instrument and the stability of performance over time are presented. Clinical implications for using both instruments are discussed.     

Developmental Progression of Motor Skills in Children Prenatally Exposed to Cocaine

This study tested the motor development of 73 infants who were prenatally exposed to cocaine using the Peabody Developmental Motor Scales at 6, 12, 18, and 24 months of age. Repeated measures MANOVA found a main effect for age with scores decreasing as children increased in age. The significant interactive effect between age and skill type indicated that fine motor quotient scores decreased more than the comparable gross motor scores. T-tests showed significant differences between the two skill types: fine motor skills were higher at the first two testing periods and lower at the last two periods. This article discusses the nature of the delays at specified age periods and the implications for future assessment and programming.     

Motor examination in children with Attention-deficit/hyperactivity Disorder and Asperger Syndrome

Aim: Evaluating whether motor skills could differentiate drug‐naive subjects with two neurodevelopmental disorders: Attention‐Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Asperger Syndrome (AS). Methods: Thirty‐six boys (12 with ADHD, 12 with AS and 12 with typical development) aged 8–12 were evaluated using the Physical and Neurological Examination for Subtle Signs. Three primary outcome variables were obtained as follows: (i) total speed of timed activities, (ii) total overflow and (iii) total dysrhythmia. Results: Children with AS performed more slowly than those with ADHD and healthy children independently of age and IQ. Total dysrhythmia differentiates ADHD and AS children from controls. Conclusion: Dysfunction of the fronto‐striatal–cerebellar networks related to motor control could be the physiopathological basis of the reported findings.     

Reported Sensory Processing of Children with Down Syndrome

ABSTRACT

Investigators have identified delays and differences in cognitive, language, motor, and sensory development in children with Down syndrome (DS). The purpose of this study was to determine the parent-reported frequency of sensory processing issues in children with DS aged 3–10 years, and the parent-reported functional impact of those sensory issues. Parents completed the short sensory profile (SSP) and a parent questionnaire (PQ). SSP results revealed a total score definite difference rate of 49%. Highest rates of probable and definite difference were in the low energy/weak, underresponsive/seeks sensation, and auditory filtering subsections of the SSP. Themes were generated from responses on the PQ regarding the functional impact of sensory differences on occupational performance in their children with DS, and related strategies currently used by parents. Findings from the study provide information to parents and health care professionals regarding sensory processing patterns in children with DS, and provide foundational data for future research.     

A Group Motor Skills Program for Children with Coordination Difficulties: Effect on Fundamental Movement Skills and Physical Activity Participation

Aims: Children with coordination difficulties are at risk of low levels of physical activity (PA) participation. This intervention examined the effects of a multidisciplinary program that emphasized parent participation on motor skill performance and PA. Methods: Ten boys (5–7 years) completed a group program consisting of conditioning exercises and activities designed to address child-selected goals. Motor proficiency and PA participation were assessed before and after the program using the Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD-2) and triaxial accelerometers, respectively. Rating scales captured child and parent perceptions of performance for each child's goals. Results: TGMD-2 subtest raw scores, age equivalent and percentile scores improved, along with parent ratings of their child's performance. Six children reported skill improvements. On average, moderate to vigorous PA improved by 10 min per day although these gains were not significant. Time spent in sedentary activities was unchanged. None of the children met the Canadian PA and sedentary behaviour guidelines. Conclusions: The results support effectiveness of a group program to improve gross motor performance and levels of PA in children with coordination difficulties. Gains in both of these domains also have the potential to impact quality of life and reduce health risks associated with inactivity.     

Evaluation of the Reliability of the Challenge when used to Measure Advanced Motor Skills of Children with Cerebral Palsy

Aims: The Challenge was designed as an extension to the GMFM-66 to assess advanced motor skills of children with cerebral palsy (CP) who walk/run independently. This study evaluated the Challenge's inter-rater and test–retest reliability. Methods: Thirty children with CP (GMFCS level I [n = 24] and II [n = 6]) completed the Challenge, with re-testing one to two weeks later. Seven physiotherapist assessors passed the Challenge criterion test pre-administration. A single assessor administered and scored test and retest sessions (test–retest reliability). A second assessor independently scored one of these sessions (inter-rater reliability). Results: Inter-rater reliability was excellent (ICC = 0.97, 95%CI 0.94–0.99, CoV < 10%), with no bias (Bland-Altman plot). Test–retest ICC was excellent (ICC = 0.94, 95% CI 0.88–0.97. CoV < 10%, and Minimum Detectable Change (MDC₉₀) was 4.47 points. Many participants indicated practising at home pre-retest session. Conclusions: There was strong rating consistency between assessors. While test–retest ICC estimates were also high, Challenge scores were higher at retest. The MDC₉₀ was still in a range (>4.5 points) that seems clinically viable for change detection. Test–retest reliability could be reassessed with children instructed not to practice between assessments to determine the extent to which between-session practice influenced scores.     

Impact of Vitamin D Supplementation on Gross Motor Development of Healthy Term Infants: A Randomized Dose-Response Trial

In addition to benefits for bone health, vitamin D is implicated in muscle function in children and adults. Aims: To determine if vitamin D dosage positively correlated with gross motor development at 3 and 6 months of age. We hypothesized that higher doses would be associated with higher scores for gross motor skills. Methods: A consecutive sample of 55 healthy, term, and breastfed infants from Montreal, Canada were recruited from a randomized trial of vitamin D supplementation between 2009 and 2012. Infants were randomized to 400 International Units (IU) (n = 19), 800 IU (n = 18) or 1,200 IU (n = 18) vitamin D₃/day. Motor performance at 3 and 6 months was quantified by the Alberta Infant Motor Scale (AIMS). Plasma vitamin D₃ metabolites were measured by tandem mass spectrometry. Results: AIMS scores did not differ at 3 months. However, total AIMS scores and sitting subscores were significantly higher at 6 months in infants receiving 400 IU/day compared to 800 IU/day and 1,200 IU/day groups (p < .05). There were weak negative correlations with length and C-3 epimer of 25(OH)D. Conclusions: In contrast to our hypothesis, gross motor achievements were significantly higher in infants receiving 400 IU/day vitamin D. Our findings also support longer infants being slightly delayed.     

Responsiveness of the Gait Domain of the Functional Evaluation Scale for Children with Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy

Aim: To determine the responsiveness of functional gait assessment of children with Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD). Method: A total of 160 films of 32 children (mean age: 9.5 ± 2.7) with DMD were scored by the gait domain of the Functional Evaluation Scale – DMD. Children were recorded every 3 months for 1 year (0, 3, 6, 9, and 12 months). Responsiveness was analyzed by the effect sizes (ES) and standardized response means (SRM). Results: Responsiveness was low to moderate at the 3-month interval (ES 0.12 to 0.34; SRM 0.27 to 0.80); low to high at the 6-month interval (ES 0.36 to 0.72; SRM 0.37 to 1.10); moderate to high at the 9-month interval (ES 0.70 to 1.0; SRM 0.50 to 1.43), and it was high at the 12-month interval (ES 0.74 to 1.34; SRM 0.88 to 1.53). Conclusion: Functional gait assessment of children with DMD was responsive since 3-month intervals. Responsiveness increased as reassessment intervals got longer. The highest responsiveness was observed when children were reevaluated after 12 months. The use of the gait domain of the Functional Evaluation Scale – DMD is recommended in 6- to 12-month intervals, which showed moderate to high responsiveness.     

642例矫正胎龄38～58周婴儿运动表现测试结果的分析

目的探讨基于重庆3所医院矫正胎龄38~58周婴儿的运动表现测试(TIMP)数据与美国常模数据的差异,为TIMP在国内的引进及应用提供参考。方法使用TIMP对2016年1~12月在陆军军医大学第二附属医院、重庆市沙坪坝区妇幼保健院、重庆市妇幼保健院早产儿随访门诊或儿保门诊就诊的642例矫正胎龄38~58周婴儿进行评估测试,统计评估得分并与美国常模数据进行比较。结果该组婴儿TIMP得分随婴儿矫正胎龄的增加而升高,从38~39+6周龄组的37±5分,增加至56~57+6周龄组的83±12分。但各周龄组平均得分均低于美国常模,差异有统计学意义(P0.001)。结论 TIMP评估得分可反映不同矫正胎龄婴儿的运动能力。基于重庆3所医院门诊矫正胎龄38~58周婴儿的TIMP数据与美国常模相比差异较大,提示在国内使用TIMP评估小婴儿运动能力前建立中国TIMP常模非常必要。     

Long-Term Stability of Individual Differences in the Emotional Responsiveness of Children with Autism

The results of two studies designed to investigate the short- and long-term stability of autistic children's responsiveness to displays of negative emotions in others are reported here. In the first study we measured the attention and behavioural responses of 22 autistic children to another's distress about a year and a half after initial assessments in a similar situation. In the second study, the children were re-assessed in two affective contexts over 5 years after initial testing. Individual differences in early responses to affect predicted affective responsiveness at each follow-up. Emotional responsiveness was positively associated with concurrent cognitive skills al each point of assessment. Furthermore, autistic children discriminated between affective and non-affective contexts when this discrimination was tested at the second follow-up.     

Fundamental Movement Skills Development under the Influence of a Gymnastics Program and Everyday Physical Activity in Seven-Year-Old Children

Objective

The objectives of this study were: a) to examine the influence of an 18-week basic artistic gymnastics program on fundamental movement skills (FMS) development in seven-year-old children; b) to determine correlations between children’s daily activities and successful performance of FMS and basic artistic gymnastics skills.

Methods

Seventy five first grade primary school children took part in this study. A physical education teacher specialized in artistic gymnastics conducted a gymnastics program for 18 weeks, three times a week. The level of gymnastics skills and FMS were identified at the beginning and at the end of the program. The level of gymnastics skills was evaluated by performance of eight artistic gymnastics skills, while FMS were evaluated by the use of FMS-polygon. Physical activity and inactivity was evaluated by using a proxy-questionnaire “Netherlands Physical Activity Questionnaire˝ (NPAQ).

Findings

According to the dependent samples t test, significant differences were found in the FMS-polygon and all gymnastics skills before and after the 18-week gymnastics program. Increasing correlations were established over time between gymnastics skills and the FMS-polygon. Unorganized daily activity of children significantly correlated with their mastering of gymnastics skills and FMS. The presented findings confirm: (1) the thesis that basic artistic gymnastics skills and FMS could be developed simultaneously, (2) the theory of positive transfer of similar skills between FMS and artistic gymnastic skills.

Conclusion

Mastering basic artistic gymnastics skills will provoke improvement of FMS and finally become a prerequisite for successful introduction of learning more complex gymnastics skills. The obtained results imply that an increase of children’s unorganized daily activities can improve the mastering of basic gymnastics skills and simultaneously the development of FMS.     

Effects of Electrical Stimulation,Exercise Training and Motor Skills Training on Strength of Children with Meningomyelocele: A Systematic Review

ABSTRACT.

This systematic review provides a critical synthesis of research regarding the effects of electrical stimulation, exercise training, and motor skills training on muscle strength in children with meningomyelocele. Nine databases were searched using terms related to meningomyelocele and physical therapy interventions. Of 298 potentially relevant citations, six met the inclusion criteria. Each was rated using the systematic review guidelines of the American Academy for Cerebral Palsy and Developmental Medicine. Two studies examined changes in quadriceps muscle torque following electrical stimulation, three investigated upper extremity exercise training, and one evaluated quadriceps strength after motor skills training. Although the limited evidence suggests improvements in strength when using these interventions, much of the evidence is of low methodological quality and all studies were published more than 10 years ago. Further research is needed regarding various strength-training interventions for children with meningomyelocele and the relationship between increased strength and improved activity and participation.     

Functional status of school-aged children with Down syndrome

OBJECTIVE: To field test, in questionnaire format, the Functional Independence Measure for Children (WeeFIM, a schedule usually administered by interview) on parents of a cohort of school-aged children with Down syndrome. METHODS: The parents of 211 Western Australian children with Down syndrome participated in the present study, representing 79.9% of all children with Down syndrome in the State. Subjects were identified using two sources: (i) the Birth Defects Registry; and (ii) the Disability Services Commission. RESULTS: The total WeeFIM score was 106.2 +/- 17.0 (mean +/- SD) out of a possible 126. Girls scored higher than boys (108.6 vs 103.6; P = 0.05). Scores increased across all age groups (P < 0.0001), even relative to normative data. Performance was strongest in the transfer and locomotion domains and weakest in social cognition. CONCLUSION: We found that severe functional limitations are rare in school-aged children with Down syndrome. Some support and supervision are required for complex self-care, communication and social skill tasks. This study demonstrates the feasibility of using the WeeFIM for collecting population survey data in children with developmental disability. This may be useful for the longitudinal tracking of such populations, as well as the monitoring of response to interventions.