Acute pulmonary edema following head injury: two case reports

An acute episode of pulmonary edema may occur in association with head injury. This is due to the elevation of systemic blood pressure, to maintain cerebral circulation in the presence of increasing intracranial pressure (ICP). In these instances, the pulmonary edema arises as a pathophysiologic, neurohemodynamic response to the intracranial disease. This response has been produced experimentally, and 2 case reports described this problem clinically. If such patients with increased ICP could be treated immediately with antihypertensive drugs, pulmonary edema might be prevented and the high mortality rate decreased.     

Changes produced by CT scanning in the outlook of severe head injury

Summary This is a study of the changes that have occurred in the field of severe head injury since the advent of CT scanning, comparing two homogeneous series of patients selected by clinical status (Glasgow Coma Scale 8), namely a series of 1,000 cases admitted to our Department between 1973 and 1976, already published in this Journal³¹, and one of 385 cases cared for between 1979 and 1980, when CT scanning had become generally available. The two series of patients compare very closely in many respects, particularly in the incidence of surgical cases. In the more recent series the overall outcome was better both in surgical and in non-surgical cases. Among patients in the CT scan series the incidence of brain contusion associated with haematoma was greater than that of pure subdural haematomas. In non-surgical patients the CT scan, unlike cerebral angiography, afforded better identification of traumatic lesions and the grouping of patients into homogeneous categories correlating with a given outcome.On admission, cerebral angiography and CT scanning were equally effective in detecting lesions of surgical import; later in the course of the illness, however, CT scanning proved far more effective in detecting changes, with fully 15% of the patients being referred for surgery in the light of repeat CT scan findings as opposed to only 4% undergoing surgery on the indications of repeat angiography. Also, in the new series the mean interval from injury to surgery was shorter, with 64% of patients being operated on within 6 hours of the injury. The incidence of lucid intervals dropped from 30% in the first series to 16% in the second, both among surgical and non-surgical patients.That the systematic repetition of CT scans was instrumental in preventing the worsening of clinical status is demonstrated by the fact that 54 patients treated surgically for expanding lesions were excluded from the second series because they could be treated before they reached a GCS score of 8 or less, whereas such cases were quite exceptional in the older series. The CT scan approach resulted in a material increase of surgical interventions.Overall, the comparison of these two series of cases selected only by the criterion of clinical severity fails to provide a complete expression of the impact of CT scanning on our daily dealing with severe head injuries.     

Mild head injury: a plea for routine early CT scanning.

We reviewed the records of 1538 mild head injury patients admitted during a 4 1/2-year period to the Southern New Jersey Regional Trauma Center. All patients had experienced brief loss of consciousness or amnesia, but had a normal or near normal neurologic examination on admission, with Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) scores of 13-15 and no focal neurologic deficit. Routine urgent cranial CT scans were obtained on all patients, and correlations between skull fractures and intracranial lesions investigated. Two hundred sixty-five patients (17.2%) harbored 340 lesions on CT scans, of which 131 were fractures and 209 were intracranial abnormalities. Fifty-eight patients needed surgery for their intracranial lesions; 23 of them had no skull fractures. None of the 1339 patients without CT evidence of intracranial lesions deteriorated under observation. We conclude that clinical observation with or without skull x-ray films is inadequate to rule out potentially dangerous intracranial lesions in apparently mild head injuries. If there is a history of loss of consciousness or amnesia, an immediate CT scan is indicated. If the results of the CT scan are normal and there are no other indications for admission, these patients may be safely discharged.     

Permeability pulmonary edema (neurogenic pulmonary edema) following isolated head and brain injury

This paper reports on 3 patients with permeability pulmonary oedema accompanying an isolated head injury (neurogenic pulmonary oedema - NPE). The occurrence of a NPE in our patients with isolated head injury amounts to 0.62%. Comparing our case reports and results, respectively, with those published in the literature, the pathogenesis of NPE is discussed and delineated.     

Indications for CT scanning in mild traumatic brain injury: A cost-effectiveness study

BACKGROUND: There is considerable uncertainty about the indications for cranial computed tomography (CT) scanning in patient with minor traumatic brain injury (TBI). This analysis involves an evidence-based comparison of several strategies for selecting patients for CT with regard to effectiveness and cost. METHODS: We performed a structured literature review of mild traumatic brain injury and constructed a cost-effectiveness model. The model estimated the impact of missed intracranial lesions on longevity, quality of life and costs. Using a 20-year-old patient for primary analysis, we compared the following strategies to screen for the need to perform a CT scan: observation in the emergency department or hospital floor, skull radiography, Selective CT based on the presence of additional risk factors and scanning all. RESULTS: Outcome measures for each strategy included average years of life, quality of life and costs. Selective CT and the CT All policy performed significantly better than the alternatives with respect to outcome. They were also less expensive in terms of total direct health care costs, although the differences did not reach statistical significance. The model yielded similar, but smaller, differences between the selective imaging and other strategies when run for older patients. CONCLUSIONS: Although the incidence of intracranial lesions, especially those that require surgery, is low in mild TBI, the consequences of delayed diagnosis are forbidding. Adverse outcome of an intracranial hematoma is so costly that it more than balances the expense of CT scans. In our cost-effectiveness model, the liberal use of CT scanning in mild TBI appears justified.     

Nucleus basalis of Meynert pathology in the human brain after fatal head injury

Dysfunction of the basal forebrain cholinergic system has been hypothesized to contribute to deficits of memory and cognition after head injury. We have previously reported reduced levels of choline acetyltransferase activity in the cerebral cortex of patients who died after a head injury, demonstrating that there is a loss of cortical cholinergic innervation. In the present study, we examined the nucleus basalis of Meynert (NBM), which provides cortical cholinergic innervation, in fatally head-injured patients and in controls. The majority of head-injured patients had histological evidence of neuronal damage in the NBM, which was due to mechanical distortion of the tissue and/or ischemic damage. The findings demonstrate that the NBM is vulnerable after severe head injury and that secondary insults play an important role in the damage. Thus, both neuronal perikarya and terminals of the basal forebrain cholinergic system are damaged after human fatal head injury. This damage may contribute to persisting dysfunction of memory and cognition in head-injured patients who survive.     

Incidence of extracranial injuries in fatal head injury patients

The clinical notes of 148 patients who were admitted with head injuries and died were studied retrospectively and compared with the results of a postmortem examination. Risk factors predicting the presence of extracranial injuries were sought. Fourteen per cent of patients admitted with head injuries died. Two risk factors predicted the presence of extracranial injuries: 67% of the patients with an associated injury had been involved in a motor vehicle accident (MVA), compared with 32% of those with a head injury only. Shock was five times as common in the group with associated injuries than in those without. Associated injuries were present in 45% of patients, and 37% of these injuries were not diagnosed on admission. In 7% these injuries were the final cause of death. This study re-emphasises the fact that multi-organ trauma is common after MVA, and shock due to hypovolaemia is an unusual complication of head injury. Searching for associated injuries is mandatory in the head-injured patient. Since clinical examination is inaccurate, special investigations, such as peritoneal lavage or computed tomography, should be utilised for this purpose.     

Acute cerebral perfusion CT abnormalities associated with posttraumatic amnesia in mild head injury

Posttraumatic amnesia (PTA) is a common symptom following traumatic brain injury. Although this transient memory deficit implies specific impairment of higher brain function, the actual pathophysiology of PTA is not well understood. The aim of this study was to assess regional cerebral hemodynamics with perfusion computed tomography (CT) in patients during PTA following mild head injury compared to patients with resolved PTA. A total of 74 patients with mild head injury without structural abnormalities on a non-contrast CT scan were included and compared to 25 healthy controls. Two patient groups were defined: (1) a PTA group that was scanned during the episode of PTA (n?=?34), and (2) a post-PTA group scanned after resolution of PTA (n?=?40). The PTA group had significantly reduced cerebral blood flow (CBF) in the frontal grey matter (41.78 [SD 7.4] versus 44.44 [SD 6.2] mL ? 100?g?1 ? min?1, p?=?0.023), and caudate nucleus (44.59 [SD 6.2] versus 47.85 [SD 7.7] mL ? 100?g?1 ? min?1, p?=?0.021), compared to the post-PTA group. Thus in patients with mild head injury, PTA is associated with cerebral perfusion abnormalities in specific cortical and subcortical regions.     

The use of CT scanning to triage patients requiring admission following minimal head injury

Recent data have suggested that patients with both a normal cranial CT scan and normal neurologic examination following minimal head injury (MHI) have no risk of neurologic deterioration. This study prospectively examined the safety of discharging patients from the emergency department (ED) after MHI whether or not there was a responsible observer at home. MHI was defined as a history of loss of consciousness (LOC), a Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score of 14 or 15, and no focal neurologic findings. In a 4-month period 111 patients with MHI were evaluated. Fifteen (14%) patients had a CT scan which revealed an intracerebral injury; 96 patients had a normal CT scan; five patients with normal CT scans were admitted because of persistent lethargy; and one patient was admitted after his CT that demonstrated an old infarct; the remaining 90 patients were discharged. There were 71 men and 19 women with a mean age of 29 years. The mechanism of injury was assault in 55, MVA in 30, and falls in five. The initial GCS in was 15 in 79 and 14 in 11. Fifty-eight per cent of patients were intoxicated. Fifty-seven (63%) patients were successfully contacted by telephone; none had developed any neurologic symptoms. Thirty-one patients who could not be followed up gave fictitious phone numbers. These data suggest that CT can reliably triage patients who can be discharged from the ED following MHI, even in the absence of a responsible observer. Hospital admission can be avoided in more than 80% of patients sustaining MHI, better utilizing scarce hospital resources.     

中度额颞底部脑损伤脑干基底池CT变化的临床意义

本文统计本院从2003年1月至2004年6月,收治的中度额颞底部脑损伤135例资料,分析其脑干基底池CT征像改变与预后的关系,以及对治疗方案选择的意义.     

Acute head injury: initial resuscitation and transfer

In the UK, about 11% of all patients in Emergency Departments have sustained a head injury, ranging from the trivial to fatal. About 1% of these patients are referred to specialist neurosurgical centres. Initial assessment and resuscitation of all trauma patients should follow the guidelines of ATLS (advanced trauma life support). Thus, the identification and treatment of compromised airway, inadequate ventilation or circulatory insufficiency take precedence over detailed assessment of neurological state. The Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) is the best method to assess patients clinically and to assess the severity of head injury. The authors describe the management of the airway, breathing and circulation and include the NICE guidelines for the acute management of head-injured patients. Patients with head injuries are at risk during transfer. These risks can be reduced by adequate resuscitation and optimization of systemic haemodynamics. Good communication is important for a successful transfer. The authors describe the timing of transfer, the escorting team, monitoring, the equipment required for the journey, and the handover.     

Repeat CT scan in closed head injury

BACKGROUND: Cranial CT scans are often repeated to observe the progress of an intracranial injury. This prospective observational study analyses the effect of repeat CT scans with the aim of formulating a guideline for their use. METHODS: One hundred and seventy-five patients with blunt head injury presenting to the trauma unit and undergoing CT scan were included. Unstable patients with polytrauma were excluded. There was no standard protocol for ordering the repeat cranial CT scans. This decision was purely based on the discretion of neurosurgeons. RESULTS: CT scan was repeated in 53 (30%) patients. The clinical indications for the repeat CT scan could be grouped into three: (i) clinical deterioration, (ii) failure of improvement, and (iii) as a follow-up scan. Nine underwent surgical intervention based on the repeat CT scan findings. They were associated with clinical deterioration and had a better survival after surgery. In others the repeat CT scan findings did not alter the management. CONCLUSION: When a head injured patient shows clinical deterioration, it is necessary to repeat the CT scan to pick up a surgically treatable lesion; which is likely in a significant number of patients. Repeat CT scan as a matter of "routine" follow-up when the patient is clinically status-quo or improving, is unlikely to yield any further information necessitating change in treatment. This guideline may be useful in settings where CT scan facility is not easily available or expenditure is an issue.     

MRI动态增强与多层螺旋CT增强扫描对肝外胆管癌术前分期的评价

目的 对比分析MRI动态增强与多层螺旋CT(MSCT)增强扫描评估肝外胆管癌术前分期的准确性及临床应用价值.方法 回顾性分析经病理证实的肝外胆管癌77例,60例行多层螺旋CT增强扫描,33例行肝脏三维容积超快速多期动态增强扫描(liver acquisition with volume accel-eration,LAVA)序列检查,其中16例同时做过此两种检查.根据肿瘤的形态、胆管浸润范围,肝动脉、门静脉血管受累情况,有无腹腔内器官、淋巴结转移等指征,进行TNM分期,并与病理结果对照.结果 所有的原发肿瘤均被MRI动态增强扫描检出(100%),60例肝外胆管癌原发肿瘤MSCT增强扫描检出52例(86.7 0A).MSCT增强扫描T分期的总准确性65%(39/60),MRI动态增强检查是93.9%(31/33)(P<0.05).MSCT增强与MRI动态增强扫描的N分期总准确性分别为55%(33/60)、81.8%(27/33)(P<0.05).两者的M分期总准确性分别为100%(33/33)、96.7%(58/60)(P>0.05).结论 在肝外胆管癌原发肿瘤病灶检出及TNM分期准确性上,MRI动态增强扫描优于MSCT增强扫描.     

Liver cirrhosis and traumatic brain injury: a fatal combination based on National Trauma Databank analysis

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of liver cirrhosis on in-hospital outcomes in victims of isolated traumatic brain injury (TBI). This was a National Trauma Databank study over a 5-year period, including patients with isolated TBI. Propensity scores were calculated to match cirrhotic with noncirrhotic TBI patients in a 1:2 ratio. Primary outcomes included mortality, hospital and surgical intensive care unit length of stay, and ventilator days. Of the 35,005 patients with isolated TBI, 47 (0.13%) had documented liver cirrhosis. After matching with 94 noncirrhotic, isolated TBI patients, no differences with regards to demographic and clinical injury characteristics were observed comparing the two groups. The mean SICU length of stay for cirrhotic and noncirrhotic patients was 5.4 ± 8.8 days and 3.7 ± 7.0 days, respectively (P = 0.079). Cirrhotic patients experienced significantly more ventilator days compared with their noncirrhotic counterparts (2.9 ± 6.4 days vs 2.0 ± 6.4 days; P = 0.001). Overall mortality in the study population was 23.4 per cent with significantly higher in-hospital mortality among cirrhotic versus noncirrhotic TBI patients [34.0% vs 18.1%; odds ratio (95% confidence interval): 2.34 (1.05-5.20); P = 0.035]. Traumatic brain injury in conjunction with liver cirrhosis is associated with two-fold increased mortality and significantly prolonged ventilator requirements when compared with their noncirrhotic counterparts of isolated TBI.     

Review of 1,000 consecutive cases of severe head injury treated before the advent of CT scanning

Summary This is a review of 1,000 consecutive cases of severe head injury admitted to our Neurosurgical Department between January 1973 and August 1976, before the advent of CT scanning. All patients were comatose following head injury (GCS8) and were treated homogeneously by the same neurosurgical team by a protocol that included immediate resuscitation on arrival, diagnosis of intracranial lesions by angiography, early surgery when needed, mechanical ventilation, steroids, and mannitol. Extracranial lesions, even if preponderant, were treated by various specialists in the Neurosurgical Department, which for all practical purposes operated as an Emergency Department. Admission criteria were very broad with no preadmission selection. The overall mortality for this series was 45%. A little less than half the patients made good recoveries or remained moderately disabled (47%); 6% were severely disabled, and 2% survived in a persistent vegetative state. More than two-thirds of the patients were brought to our Neurosurgical Department after a short stay at a general hospital; 72% were admitted within 6 hours of injury; 71% were traffic accident victims; and 34% had significant associated extracranial injuries. Carotid angiography was performed in 78% of the patients and indicated the presence of an intracranial haematoma requiring surgery in 36% of the whole series. Mortality was significantly higher in operated than in unoperated patients (56% versus 39%); those treated surgically, however, were older, in worse clinical condition, and showed a higher incidence of acute subdural haematomas associated with brain contusion. Carotid angiography proved very effective in revealing the presence of an expansive lesion but failed to reflect the severity of brain damage, since the group with negative angiograms showed a high mortality (52%). Patients with a lucid interval had a higher percentage of surgical lesions than those with immediate coma (58% versus 26%); but fully 42% of them did not require surgery, and 25% had negative angiograms. From the prognostic point of view the clinical data elicited after initial resuscitation were highly predictive of the outcome: some individual neurological signs, such as mydriasis, posturing and eye movements, were not inferior to the GCS score in that respect. Age also proved a strong predictor, since elderly patients are more likely to have severe subdural and parenchymal lesions and their clinical severity is accordingly greater.Our series amounts to a data bank of cases both contemporary to and in good agreement with that collected by Jennett and his associates in their 1977 multinational study; and it affords a useful reference in the assessment of epidemiological variations and alternative management in relation to outcome.     

Effect of AVP on brain edema following traumatic brain injury

Objective: To evaluate plasma arginine vasopressin (AVP) level in patients with traumatic brain injury and investigate the role of AVP in the process of brain edema. Methods: A total of 30 patients with traumatic brain injury were involved in our study. They were divided into two groups by Glasgow Coma Scale: severe traumatic brain injury group (STBI, GCS≤8) and moderate traumatic brain injury group ( MTBI, GCS >8). Samples of venous blood were collected in the morning at rest from 15 healthy volunteers (control group) and within 24 h after traumatic brain injury from these patients for AVP determinations by radioimmunoassay. The severity and duration of the brain edema were estimated by head CT scan. Results: plasma AVP levels (ng/L) were (mean±SD): control, 3. 06±1. 49; MTBI, 38. 12±7. 25; and STBI, 66. 61±17. 10. The plasma level of AVP was significantly increased within 24 h after traumatic brain injury and followed by the reduction of GCS, suggesting the deterioration of cerebral injury (P<0. 01). And the AVP level was correlated with the severity (STBI r =0.919, P < 0.01; MTBI r = 0.724, P < 0.01) and the duration of brain edema (STBI r = 0. 790, P < 0. 01; MTBI r = 0. 712, P<0.01). Conclusions: The plasma AVP level is closely associated with the severity of traumatic brain injury. AVP may play an important role in pathogenesis of brain edema after traumatic brain injury.