Long-term sensory deprivation selectively rearranges functional inhibitory circuits in mouse barrel cortex

Long-term whisker removal alters the balance of excitation and inhibition in rodent barrel cortex, yet little is known about the contributions of individual cells and synapses in this process. We studied synaptic inhibition in four major types of neurons in live tangential slices that isolate layer 4 in the posteromedial barrel subfield. Voltage-clamp recordings of layer 4 neurons reveal that fast decay of synaptic inhibition requires α1-containing GABA_A receptors. After 7 weeks of deprivation, we found that GABA_A-receptor-mediated inhibitory postsynaptic currents (IPSCs) in the inhibitory low-threshold-spiking (LTS) cell recorded in deprived barrels exhibited faster decay kinetics and larger amplitudes in whisker-deprived barrels than those in nondeprived barrels in age-matched controls. This was not observed in other cell types. Additionally, IPSCs recorded in LTS cells from deprived barrels show a marked increase in zolpidem sensitivity. To determine if the faster IPSC decay in LTS cells from deprived barrels indicates an increase in α1 subunit functionality, we deprived α1(H101R) mutant mice with zolpidem-insensitive α1-containing GABA_A receptors. In these mice and matched wild-type controls, IPSC decay kinetics in LTS cells were faster after whisker removal; however, the deprivation-induced sensitivity to zolpidem was reduced in α1(H101R) mice. These data illustrate a change of synaptic inhibition in LTS cells via an increase in α1-subunit-mediated function. Because α1 subunits are commonly associated with circuit-specific plasticity in sensory cortex, this switch in LTS cell synaptic inhibition may signal necessary circuit changes required for plastic adjustments in sensory-deprived cortex.     

Inhibitory interneurons in a cortical column form hot zones of inhibition in layers 2 and 5A

Although physiological data on microcircuits involving a few inhibitory neurons in the mammalian cerebral cortex are available, data on the quantitative relation between inhibition and excitation in cortical circuits involving thousands of neurons are largely missing. Because the distribution of neurons is very inhomogeneous in the cerebral cortex, it is critical to map all neurons in a given volume rather than to rely on sparse sampling methods. Here, we report the comprehensive mapping of interneurons (INs) in cortical columns of rat somatosensory cortex, immunolabeled for neuron-specific nuclear protein and glutamate decarboxylase. We found that a column contains ~2,200 INs (11.5% of ~19,000 neurons), almost a factor of 2 less than previously estimated. The density of GABAergic neurons was inhomogeneous between layers, with peaks in the upper third of L2/3 and in L5A. IN density therefore defines a distinct layer 2 in the sensory neocortex. In addition, immunohistochemical markers of IN subtypes were layer-specific. The "hot zones" of inhibition in L2 and L5A match the reported low stimulus-evoked spiking rates of excitatory neurons in these layers, suggesting that these inhibitory hot zones substantially suppress activity in the neocortex.     

Learning reward timing in cortex through reward dependent expression of synaptic plasticity

The ability to represent time is an essential component of cognition but its neural basis is unknown. Although extensively studied both behaviorally and electrophysiologically, a general theoretical framework describing the elementary neural mechanisms used by the brain to learn temporal representations is lacking. It is commonly believed that the underlying cellular mechanisms reside in high order cortical regions but recent studies show sustained neural activity in primary sensory cortices that can represent the timing of expected reward. Here, we show that local cortical networks can learn temporal representations through a simple framework predicated on reward dependent expression of synaptic plasticity. We assert that temporal representations are stored in the lateral synaptic connections between neurons and demonstrate that reward-modulated plasticity is sufficient to learn these representations. We implement our model numerically to explain reward-time learning in the primary visual cortex (V1), demonstrate experimental support, and suggest additional experimentally verifiable predictions.     

Activity-dependent maintenance and growth of dendrites in adult cortex

Whereas it is widely accepted that the adult cortex is capable of a remarkable degree of functional plasticity, demonstrations of accompanying structural changes have been limited. We examined the basal dendritic field morphology of dye-filled neurons in layers III and IV of the mature barrel cortex after vibrissal-deafferentation in adult rats. Eight weeks later, the tendency for these neurons to orient their dendritic arbors toward the center of their home barrel was found to be disrupted by the resultant reduced activity of thalamocortical innervation. Measures of spine density and total dendritic length were normal, indicating that the loss of dendritic bias was accompanied by growth of dendrites directed away from the barrel center. This finding suggests that in the mature cortex, the apparently static structural attributes of the normal adult cortex depend on maintenance of patterns of afferent activity; with the corollary that changes in these patterns can induce structural plasticity.     

Dendritic coding of multiple sensory inputs in single cortical neurons in vivo

Single cortical neurons in the mammalian brain receive signals arising from multiple sensory input channels. Dendritic integration of these afferent signals is critical in determining the amplitude and time course of the neurons' output signals. As of yet, little is known about the spatial and temporal organization of converging sensory inputs. Here, we combined in vivo two-photon imaging with whole-cell recordings in layer 2 neurons of the mouse vibrissal cortex as a means to analyze the spatial pattern of subthreshold dendritic calcium signals evoked by the stimulation of different whiskers. We show that the principle whisker and the surrounding whiskers can evoke dendritic calcium transients in the same neuron. Distance-dependent attenuation of dendritic calcium transients and the corresponding subthreshold depolarization suggest feed-forward activation. We found that stimulation of different whiskers produced multiple calcium hotspots on the same dendrite. Individual hotspots were activated with low probability in a stochastic manner. We show that these hotspots are generated by calcium signals arising in dendritic spines. Some spines were activated uniquely by single whiskers, but many spines were activated by multiple whiskers. These shared spines indicate the existence of presynaptic feeder neurons that integrate and transmit activity arising from multiple whiskers. Despite the dendritic overlap of whisker-specific and shared inputs, different whiskers are represented by a unique set of activation patterns within the dendritic field of each neuron.     

Experience-dependent functional plasticity and visual response selectivity of surviving subplate neurons in the mouse visual cortex

Subplate neurons are early-born cortical neurons that transiently form neural circuits during perinatal development and guide cortical maturation. Thereafter, most subplate neurons undergo cell death, while some survive and renew their target areas for synaptic connections. However, the functional properties of the surviving subplate neurons remain largely unknown. This study aimed to characterize the visual responses and experience-dependent functional plasticity of layer 6b (L6b) neurons, the remnants of subplate neurons, in the primary visual cortex (V1). Two-photon Ca²⁺ imaging was performed in V1 of awake juvenile mice. L6b neurons showed broader tunings for orientation, direction, and spatial frequency than did layer 2/3 (L2/3) and L6a neurons. In addition, L6b neurons showed lower matching of preferred orientation between the left and right eyes compared with other layers. Post hoc 3D immunohistochemistry confirmed that the majority of recorded L6b neurons expressed connective tissue growth factor (CTGF), a subplate neuron marker. Moreover, chronic two-photon imaging showed that L6b neurons exhibited ocular dominance (OD) plasticity by monocular deprivation during critical periods. The OD shift to the open eye depended on the response strength to the stimulation of the eye to be deprived before starting monocular deprivation. There were no significant differences in visual response selectivity prior to monocular deprivation between the OD changed and unchanged neuron groups, suggesting that OD plasticity can occur in L6b neurons showing any response features. In conclusion, our results provide strong evidence that surviving subplate neurons exhibit sensory responses and experience-dependent plasticity at a relatively late stage of cortical development.

The mammalian cerebral cortex consists of six layers, with distinct roles in information processing (1, 2). At the bottom of the neocortex, on the boundary between the gray matter and white matter, there is a thin sheet of neurons called layer 6b (L6b) (3). Layer 6b neurons are thought to be remnants of subplate neurons based on their location and cell-type marker expression (4). During prenatal and early postnatal periods, subplate neurons form transient neuronal circuits that play key roles in cortical maturation (5–7). In the embryonic cortex, subplate neurons form short-lived synapses with early immature neurons to regulate radial migration (8). During perinatal development, subplate neurons transiently receive inputs from ingrowing thalamic axons and innervate layer 4 (L4) to guide thalamic inputs to the eventual target, L4 (5, 6). Thus, the circuits formed by subplate neurons at the perinatal developmental stage are essential to establish basic neuronal circuits before starting experience-dependent refinements (5–7). Subsequently, subplate neurons largely disappear due to programmed cell death, but some survive and reside in L6b (5, 6). In the adult cortex, L6b neurons form neuronal circuits with local and long-distance neurons, which are different from those formed during early development (9–12). Therefore, surviving subplate neurons may acquire a role in information processing after remodeling of neuronal connections. A recent study using three-photon Ca²⁺ imaging demonstrated that L6b neurons show visual responses with broad orientation/direction tuning in the adult mouse primary visual cortex (V1) (13). However, comparable evidence for L6b response properties with other layer neurons in V1 is lacking (14–20). Moreover, L6b neurons have diverse morphology and molecular expression (21–24). Neurons born during subplate neurogenesis show the different expression patterns of subplate markers in postnatal L6b (4). However, the response properties in each subtype of L6b neurons remain unknown.The sensory responsiveness of cortical neurons is considerably refined by sensory experience relatively late in development, referred to as the critical period (25, 26). Previous studies have demonstrated that sensory activities before the onset of the critical period affect the arrangement of subplate neuron neurites in the barrel cortex and local subplate circuits in the auditory cortex (27, 28). However, there is no direct evidence that the sensory responses of surviving subplate neurons are modified by sensory experience during the critical period. If experience-dependent plasticity occurs in subplate neuron responses, they will contribute to the experience-dependent development of sensory functions and possibly to the functions in the mature cortex. Ocular dominance (OD) plasticity in V1 is a canonical model used to examine experience-dependent refinement of sensory responses (25, 26, 29, 30). If one eye is occluded for several days during the critical period, neurons in V1 lose their response to the deprived eye. OD plasticity is robustly preserved across species and cell types. Therefore, OD plasticity is suitable for evaluating experience-dependent plasticity in L6b neurons.This study aimed to characterize the visual responses and OD plasticity of L6b neurons in V1. Toward this goal, two-photon Ca²⁺ imaging was performed in awake juvenile mice, followed by 3D immunohistochemistry with a subplate neuronal marker, connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) (4, 31). L6b neurons showed broader tuning to visual stimuli and lower binocular matching of orientation preference than did layer 2/3 (L2/3) and L6a neurons. Chronic two-photon imaging revealed significant OD plasticity in individual L6b neurons during the critical period. Our results provide strong evidence that L6b neurons, presumed to be subplate neuron remnants, exhibit sensory responses and experience-dependent functional plasticity at a relatively late stage of cortical development.     

Rapid stimulus-evoked astrocyte Ca2+ elevations and hemodynamic responses in mouse somatosensory cortex in vivo

Increased neuron and astrocyte activity triggers increased brain blood flow, but controversy exists over whether stimulation-induced changes in astrocyte activity are rapid and widespread enough to contribute to brain blood flow control. Here, we provide evidence for stimulus-evoked Ca²⁺ elevations with rapid onset and short duration in a large proportion of cortical astrocytes in the adult mouse somatosensory cortex. Our improved detection of the fast Ca²⁺ signals is due to a signal-enhancing analysis of the Ca²⁺ activity. The rapid stimulation-evoked Ca²⁺ increases identified in astrocyte somas, processes, and end-feet preceded local vasodilatation. Fast Ca²⁺ responses in both neurons and astrocytes correlated with synaptic activity, but only the astrocytic responses correlated with the hemodynamic shifts. These data establish that a large proportion of cortical astrocytes have brief Ca²⁺ responses with a rapid onset in vivo, fast enough to initiate hemodynamic responses or influence synaptic activity.Brain function emerges from signaling in and between neurons and associated astrocytes, which causes fluctuations in cerebral blood flow (CBF) (1–5). Astrocytes are ideally situated for controlling activity-dependent increases in CBF because they closely associate with synapses and contact blood vessels with their end-feet (1, 6). Whether or not astrocytic Ca²⁺ responses develop often or rapidly enough to account for vascular signals in vivo is still controversial (7–10). Ca²⁺ responses are of interest because intracellular Ca²⁺ is a key messenger in astrocytic communication and because enzymes that synthesize the vasoactive substances responsible for neurovascular coupling are Ca²⁺-dependent (1, 4). Neuronal activity releases glutamate at synapses and activates metabotropic glutamate receptors on astrocytes, and this activation can be monitored by imaging cytosolic Ca²⁺ changes (11). Astrocytic Ca²⁺ responses are often reported to evolve on a slow (seconds) time scale, which is too slow to account for activity-dependent increases in CBF (8, 10, 12, 13). Furthermore, uncaging of Ca²⁺ in astrocytes triggers vascular responses in brain slices through specific Ca²⁺-dependent pathways with a protracted time course (14, 15). More recently, stimulation of single presynaptic neurons in hippocampal slices was shown to evoke fast, brief, local Ca²⁺ elevations in astrocytic processes that were essential for local synaptic functioning in the adult brain (16, 17). This work prompted us to reexamine the characteristics of fast, brief astrocytic Ca²⁺ signals in vivo with special regard to neurovascular coupling, i.e., the association between local increases in neural activity and the concomitant rise in local blood flow, which constitutes the physiological basis for functional neuroimaging.Here, we describe how a previously undescribed method of analysis enabled us to provide evidence for fast Ca²⁺ responses in a main fraction of astrocytes in mouse whisker barrel cortical layers II/III in response to somatosensory stimulation. The astrocytic Ca²⁺ responses were brief enough to be a direct consequence of synaptic excitation and correlated with stimulation-induced hemodynamic responses. Fast Ca²⁺ responses in astrocyte end-feet preceded the onset of dilatation in adjacent vessels by hundreds of milliseconds. This finding might suggest that communication at the gliovascular interface contributes considerably to neurovascular coupling.     

Essential functions of primate frontopolar cortex in cognition

Brodmann’s area 10 is one of the largest cytoarchitecturally defined regions in the human cerebral cortex, occupying the most anterior part of the prefrontal cortex [frontopolar cortex (FPC)], and is believed to sit atop a prefrontal hierarchy. The crucial contributions that the FPC makes to cognition are unknown. Rodents do not possess such a FPC, but primates do, and we report here the behavioral effects of circumscribed FPC lesions in nonhuman primates. FPC lesions selectively impaired rapid one-trial learning about unfamiliar objects and unfamiliar objects-in-scenes, and also impaired rapid learning about novel abstract rules. Object recognition memory, shifting between established abstract behavioral rules, and the simultaneous application of two distinct rules were unaffected by the FPC lesion. The distinctive pattern of impaired and spared performance across these seven behavioral tasks reveals that the FPC mediates exploration and rapid learning about the relative value of novel behavioral options, and shows that the crucial contributions made by the FPC to cognition differ markedly from the contributions of other primate prefrontal regions.Granular prefrontal cortex (gPFC) is unique to anthropoid primates (1), and is believed to underlie the ability to construct novel, complex, structured sequences of intelligent, goal-directed behavior (2). Although the frontopolar cortex (FPC), the most rostral gPFC region, is particularly well developed in hominoids and in humans (3), it is also a substantial cortical structure in monkeys. In both macaques and humans, the lateral, medial, and ventral aspects of the FPC are typically occupied by “area 10” (4–9). FPC connections are also broadly similar across primate species (6, 10–13). The similarity in cytoarchitecture and connections is highly suggestive of some conservation of FPC function across primate species.Anatomical connections suggest that the FPC sits atop a gPFC hierarchy, yet we do not know what crucial contribution(s) the FPC makes to cognition or how this contribution(s) differs from other gPFC regions. FPC blood oxygen level-dependent activity has been correlated with a bafflingly diverse range of cognitive processes, including implementing task sets (14), multitasking (15), future thinking and prospective memory (16–18), deferring goals and cognitive “branching” (19), exploratory decision making (20), evaluating counterfactual choice (21), complex relational and abstract reasoning (22), integrating outcomes of multiple cognitive operations (23), coordinating internal and external influences on cognition (24), evaluating self-generated information (25), episodic memory retrieval and detailed recollection (26–28), and facing uncertainty or conflict (29–31), for example. Patients with FPC lesions behave inappropriately, particularly in uncertain contexts, and show deficiencies in prospective memory and planning (32–34), but their lesions are large and unselective, and their premorbid performance is unknown. Hence, no consensus has emerged from human neuroimaging and neuropsychology as to what the common underlying contribution(s) of the FPC to cognition might be (23, 35). Targeted electrophysiological recording and circumscribed lesion studies in animal models have had major influences on understanding the contributions to cognition of a broad range of other gPFC areas (2), but such is not the case for the FPC. To date, there are only two primary reports of targeted FPC recordings, (36, 37) and, despite imaging evidence showing FPC activation across a wide range of complex cognitive tasks, many of the patterns of neuronal activity associated with the flexible and complex goal-directed behavior that are usually observed in other gPFC areas (2) were not observed in the FPC (36, 37), suggesting the FPC’s role in these tasks might be different from the role of neighboring areas. Previous lesion studies confirm gPFC areas adjacent to the FPC are necessary for supporting efficient exploitation of current complex tasks/goals (38–44), but no study has yet investigated the effects of circumscribed FPC lesions to identify the FPC’s necessary contribution to cognition. Hence, we aimed to accomplish the following: (i) determine what basic elements of complex, rapidly flexible, goal-directed behavior were crucially dependent upon the FPC; (ii) ascertain whether and how the contribution of the FPC to cognition differs from the rest of gPFC; and (iii) provide an animal model of FPC function to help constrain and inspire hypotheses about the role of the FPC in humans, especially in view of its large volume.     

咪唑安定对氯胺酮诱导的大鼠脑扣带回内c-fos表达的影响

目的观察咪唑安定对氯胺酮诱导大鼠扣带回c-fos基因表达的影响。方法SD大鼠20只,随机分为对照组、咪唑安定组、氯胺酮组和咪唑安定＋氯胺酮Ⅰ、Ⅱ组（MKI、Ⅱ组）,每组4只。MKⅠ组、Ⅱ组分别腹腔注射眯唑安定2．5、5mg／kg,5min后,腹腔注射100mg／kg氯胺酮。对照组、氯胺酮组、眯唑安定组分别腹腔注射生理盐水、100mg／kg氯胺酮、咪唑安定5mg／kg。2h后,取脑,冰冻切片,进行Fos蛋白免疫组织化学染色。结果氯胺酮组Fos蛋白免疫组织化学阳性神经元（FLIN）明显多于对照组、咪唑安定组（P〈0．01）;MKⅠ组、Ⅱ组FLIN均少于氯胺酮组（P〈0．01）,而且MKII组明显少于MKI组（P〈0．01）。结论咪唑安定可能通过剂量依赖的抑制氯胺酮诱导的c-fos在扣带回的表达,减轻或消除氯胺酮的精神副作用。     

Prelimbic cortical BDNF is required for memory of learned fear but not extinction or innate fear

In the medial prefrontal cortex, the prelimbic area is emerging as a major modulator of fear behavior, but the mechanisms remain unclear. Using a selective neocortical knockout mouse, virally mediated prelimbic cortical-specific gene deletion, and pharmacological rescue with a TrkB agonist, we examined the role of a primary candidate mechanism, BDNF, in conditioned fear. We found consistently robust deficits in consolidation of cued fear but no effects on acquisition, expression of unlearned fear, sensorimotor function, and spatial learning. This deficit in learned fear in the BDNF knockout mice was rescued with systemic administration of a TrkB receptor agonist, 7,8-dihydroxyflavone. These data indicate that prelimbic BDNF is critical for consolidation of learned fear memories, but it is not required for innate fear or extinction of fear. Moreover, use of site-specific, inducible BDNF deletions shows a powerful mechanism that may further our understanding of the pathophysiology of fear-related disorders.     

A transgenic mouse line with specific Cre recombinase expression in the adrenal cortex

The Cre-loxP system combined with gene targeting strategies has proven to be very useful for gene inactivation in specific tissues and/or cell types. To achieve adrenal cortex specific recombination in vivo, we used a 0.5-kb fragment of the 5′-flanking region of the akr1b7 gene to drive Cre expression in adrenocortical cells. The resulting 0.5 akr1b7-Cre mice express Cre in all steroidogenic zones of the adrenal cortex but not in the gonads. Although recombination of the ROSA26R reporter locus was not observed in all cortical cells, we provide evidence that Cre is expressed in all the cells of the cortex in adult mice. In addition, Cre activity was found in collecting ducts and maturing glomeruli of the kidney. This line is the first to show specific Cre expression in the adrenal cortex in the absence of Cre expression in the gonads. This transgene thus provides a valuable tool for specific gene recombination in the adrenal cortex and kidney.     

Strengthening of lateral activation in adult rat visual cortex after retinal lesions captured with voltage-sensitive dye imaging in vivo

Sensory deprivation caused by peripheral injury can trigger functional cortical reorganization across the initially silenced cortical area. It is proposed that intracortical connectivity enables recovery of function within such a lesion projection zone (LPZ), thus substituting lost subcortical input. Here, we investigated retinal lesion-induced changes in the function of lateral connections in the primary visual cortex of the adult rat. Using voltage-sensitive dye recordings, we visualized in millisecond-time resolution spreading synaptic activity across the LPZ. Shortly after lesion, the majority of neurons within the LPZ were subthresholdly activated by delayed propagation of activity that originated from unaffected cortical regions. With longer recovery time, latencies within the LPZ gradually decreased, and activation reached suprathreshold levels. Targeted electrode recordings confirmed that receptive fields of intra-LPZ neurons were displaced to the retinal lesion border while displaying normal orientation and direction selectivity. These results corroborate the view that cortical horizontal connections have a central role in functional reorganization, as revealed here by progressive facilitation of synaptic activity and the traveling wave of excitation that propagates horizontally into the deprived cortical region.     

快速眼动睡眠剥夺后大鼠皮质及海马神经元突触相关蛋白神经颗粒素表达的变化

目的:探讨不同时间的快速眼动(REM)睡眠剥夺对大鼠皮质及海马各区神经颗粒素分子表达变化的影响及意义。方法:Sprague-Dawley大鼠70只,随机分为睡眠剥夺组(SD)、实验环境对照组(TC)和空白对照组(CC)。其中SD组又分为12h、1d、3d、5d、7d共5个时点组。采用改良多平台(MMPM)睡眠剥夺法进行REM睡眠剥夺,运用免疫荧光染色共聚焦显微镜观察REM睡眠剥夺后不同时点大鼠皮质及海马各区的神经颗粒素表达的分布规律和时空变化;同时结合蛋白印迹(Western blot)技术对皮质及全海马神经颗粒素蛋白作选择性半定量分析。结果:神经颗粒素主要分布于正常大脑皮质Ⅱ、Ⅲ层的神经元胞体和树突、海马CA1～CA3锥体细胞层和齿状回颗粒细胞层内。REM睡眠剥夺12h后大鼠皮质神经颗粒素的表达即开始减少,与对照组比较有显著性差异,直至第7d均呈下降趋势;海马结构中神经颗粒素表达未见显著变化。蛋白印迹实验印证了这一结果。结论:REM睡眠剥夺能引起大鼠大脑皮质神经颗粒素表达减少,且随睡眠剥夺时间的延长而渐趋明显,这可能是REM睡眠剥夺引起大脑神经元突触可塑性改变,进而影响大鼠学习记忆功能损害的机制之一。     

Internal body state influences topographical plasticity of sensory representations in the rat gustatory cortex

Primary sensory cortices are remarkably organized in spatial maps according to specific sensory features of the stimuli. These cortical maps can undergo plastic rearrangements after changes in afferent ("bottom-up") sensory inputs such as peripheral lesions or passive sensory experience. However, much less is known about the influence of "top-down" factors on cortical plasticity. Here, we studied the effect of a visceral malaise on taste representations in the gustatory cortex (GC). Using in vivo optical imaging, we showed that inducing conditioned taste aversion (CTA) to a sweet and pleasant stimulus induced plastic rearrangement of its cortical representation, becoming more similar to a bitter and unpleasant taste representation. Using a behavior task, we showed that changes in hedonic perception are directly related to the maps plasticity in the GC. Indeed imaging the animals after CTA extinction indicated that sweet and bitter representations were dissimilar. In conclusion, we showed that an internal state of malaise induces plastic reshaping in the GC associated to behavioral shift of the stimulus hedonic value. We propose that the GC not only encodes taste modality, intensity, and memory but extends its integrative properties to process also the stimulus hedonic value.     

Transformation of acoustic information to sensory decision variables in the parietal cortex

The process by which sensory evidence contributes to perceptual choices requires an understanding of its transformation into decision variables. Here, we address this issue by evaluating the neural representation of acoustic information in the auditory cortex-recipient parietal cortex, while gerbils either performed a two-alternative forced-choice auditory discrimination task or while they passively listened to identical acoustic stimuli. During task engagement, stimulus identity decoding performance from simultaneously recorded parietal neurons significantly correlated with psychometric sensitivity. In contrast, decoding performance during passive listening was significantly reduced. Principal component and geometric analyses revealed the emergence of low-dimensional encoding of linearly separable manifolds with respect to stimulus identity and decision, but only during task engagement. These findings confirm that the parietal cortex mediates a transition of acoustic representations into decision-related variables. Finally, using a clustering analysis, we identified three functionally distinct subpopulations of neurons that each encoded task-relevant information during separate temporal segments of a trial. Taken together, our findings demonstrate how parietal cortex neurons integrate and transform encoded auditory information to guide sound-driven perceptual decisions.

Integrating sensory information over time is one of the fundamental attributes that is required for accurate perceptual decisions (1, 2). This process is supported by the transformation of stimulus representations into decision variables. In the case of auditory stimuli, prior to the formation of decision variables, the central representations of acoustic cues are gradually reconfigured along the auditory neuraxis. Thus, auditory neurons become more selective to contextually relevant acoustic features as one ascends the central pathway into the auditory cortex (3). Ultimately, individual acoustic components merge into auditory objects to guide perception (4). Similarly, primary visual cortex neurons are selective to the stimulus orientation (5, 6), whereas higher cortices are selective for more complex characteristics (7–9). A hierarchical progression of sensory information processing is also seen across the somatosensory ascending pathway where receptive fields grow more complex (10). These hierarchically transformed neural signals are ultimately decoded downstream of sensory cortices for stimulus-dependent decisions (4, 11–14).Studies in both nonhuman primates and rodents suggest that the parietal cortex integrates sensory inputs and transforms them into decision signals (15–19). The parietal cortex receives direct projections from primary or secondary sensory cortices (20, 21), has been causally implicated in the performance of perceptual decision-making tasks (22–25), and its activity typically reflects action selection (26, 27). Furthermore, parietal neurons gradually increase their spiking activity over time epochs that scale with the accumulation of sensory evidence (11, 28–31). Thus, while parietal cortex activity reflects decision variables, the manner in which relevant sensory stimuli are represented prior to this transformation remains uncertain.To dissociate encoding of stimuli from encoding of decision, we recorded neural activity from the parietal cortex while gerbils performed an auditory discrimination task (25), and again during passive listening sessions, using the same acoustic stimuli in the absence of behavioral decision. While some visual studies have explored visual selectivity of parietal cortex neurons under passive fixation conditions (32, 33), a direct comparison between the decoding of visual stimuli versus decision would require that eye fixation be controlled during stimulus presentation. In contrast, auditory tasks can be performed without the need to maintain head position during a trial, permitting us to directly compare the sound-driven responses of parietal cortex neurons during task engagement versus their responses to identical stimuli during passive listening. Thus, we predicted that if parietal cortex activity during task performance did not reflect the transition into decision-related variables, then all analyses of neural processing would be similar to those displayed during the passive listening condition. We found that during task performance, decoded parietal cortex population activity based on stimulus identity correlated with behavioral discrimination across similar timescales. Furthermore, principal component analysis (PCA) performed on parietal cortex responses revealed neural trajectories (i.e., the change in parietal cortex population activity over time) that demonstrated the temporal progression of low-dimensional encoding of acoustic information that transitioned to encoding of behavioral choices. During passive listening sessions, decoding performance from parietal cortex population activity based on stimulus identity was poorer than decoding during task performance, but scaled with stimulus duration. In addition, the PCA revealed neural trajectories that differentiated between each stimulus condition, but did not reflect a decision variable. Thus, the parietal cortex could accumulate auditory evidence for the purpose of forming a decision variable during task performance. Finally, our clustering analysis based on neuronal response properties suggest subpopulations of parietal neurons that may reflect separate temporal segments of individual trials during decision-making. We propose that the parietal cortex integrates and transforms bottom-up sensory information into decision variables during task performance.     

氟对小鼠成纤维细胞和成骨细胞c-fos表达的影响

目的 观察氟对小鼠成纤维细胞(FB)和成骨细胞(OB)c-fos mRNA和蛋白表达的影响,探讨c-fos表达改变在FB成骨功能方面的作用.方法 将小鼠FB和OB分为对照组和6个染氟组,染氟(F-)质量浓度分别为0、0.0001、0.0010、0.1000、1.0000、10.0000、20.0000 mg/L,培养时间为2、4、24、48、72 h.应用酶联免疫吸附法(ELISA)和RT-PCR法分别检测各时间段培养细胞上清液c-fos蛋白和染氟48 h细胞中c-fos mRNA的表达.结果 ELISA结果表明,各染氟组FB在各时间段c-fos蛋白水平均较相应对照组明显升高(P<0.01);OB c-fos蛋白水平在氟作用48 h的0.0001、0.0010 mg/L组(0.73±0.04、0.64±0.14)、氟作用72 h的0.0001mg/L组(0.70±0.17)较对照组(0.32±0.04、0.27±0.05)明显升高(P<0.01).RT-PCR结果表明,染氟48 h各剂量组FB c-fos mRNA表达(1.06±0.16、1.06±0.12、1.12±0.16、1.04±0.15、1.04±0.10、1.15±0.29)呈上升趋势,但与对照组(0.95±0.11)比较,差异无统计学意义(P>0.05);OB在染氟20.0000 mg/L组c-fos mRNA表达(1.40±0.17)较对照组(1.06±0.06)明显升高(P<0.01).结论 氟对FB和OB c-fos mRNA和蛋白表达具有明显的刺激增强作用,可能在促进FB成骨表型表达和成骨活动增强方面发挥重要作用.     

Emergence of functional subnetworks in layer 2/3 cortex induced by sequential spikes in vivo

During cortical circuit development in the mammalian brain, groups of excitatory neurons that receive similar sensory information form microcircuits. However, cellular mechanisms underlying cortical microcircuit development remain poorly understood. Here we implemented combined two-photon imaging and photolysis in vivo to monitor and manipulate neuronal activities to study the processes underlying activity-dependent circuit changes. We found that repeated triggering of spike trains in a randomly chosen group of layer 2/3 pyramidal neurons in the somatosensory cortex triggered long-term plasticity of circuits (LTPc), resulting in the increased probability that the selected neurons would fire when action potentials of individual neurons in the group were evoked. Significant firing pattern changes were observed more frequently in the selected group of neurons than in neighboring control neurons, and the induction was dependent on the time interval between spikes, N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor activation, and Calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) activation. In addition, LTPc was associated with an increase of activity from a portion of neighboring neurons with different probabilities. Thus, our results demonstrate that the formation of functional microcircuits requires broad network changes and that its directionality is nonrandom, which may be a general feature of cortical circuit assembly in the mammalian cortex.Layer 2/3 neurons in the barrel cortex play a central role in integrative cortical processing (1–4). Neurons in layer 2/3 are interconnected with each other, and their axons and dendrites traverse adjacent barrel areas (5, 6). Recent calcium (Ca²⁺) imaging studies in awake animals showed that two very closely localized layer 2/3 pyramidal neurons are independently activated by different whiskers (7). In addition, adjacent layer 2/3 neurons have different receptive field properties; signals from different whiskers may emerge on different spines in the same neurons (8, 9). These findings suggest that the organization of functional subnetworks in somatosensory layer 2/3 is heterogeneous at the single-cell level and that microcircuits are assembled at a very fine scale (10). In vivo whole-cell recording experiments have also shown that most, but not all, layer 2/3 pyramidal neurons receive subthreshold depolarization by single-whisker stimulation with much broader receptive fields than neurons in layer 4 (11, 12). These anatomical and functional data suggest that electric signals relayed to the cortex by whisker activation are greatly intermingled within layer 2/3 neurons, and that studying the mechanisms by which these layer 2/3 neurons make connections may be critical for understanding the cortical network organizing principles underlying somatosensation.A previous modeling study suggested that spike timing-dependent plasticity (STDP) can lead to the formation of functional cortical columns and activity-dependent reorganization of neural circuits (13–16). However, how spikes arising in multiple neurons in vivo influence their connectivity is poorly understood. In this study using two-photon glutamate photolysis, which allowed us to control neuronal activity in a spatially and temporally precise manner, we examined activity-dependent cellular mechanisms during network rearrangement generated by repetitive spike trains in a group of neurons. We found that repetitive spikes on a group of neurons induced the probability of the neurons firing together. This circuit plasticity required spiking at short intervals among neurons and is expressed by N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor- and Calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII)-dependent long-lasting connectivity changes. The probability of firing was differentially affected by the order of the spike sequence but was not dependent on the physical distance between neurons. Thus, our data show that neuronal connectivity within a functional subnetwork is established in not only a preferred but also a directional manner.     

Electrical stimulation of the rostral medial prefrontal cortex in rabbits inhibits the expression of conditioned eyelid responses but not their acquisition

We have studied the role of rostral medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) on reflexively evoked blinks and on classically conditioned eyelid responses in alert-behaving rabbits. The rostral mPFC was identified by its afferent projections from the medial half of the thalamic mediodorsal nuclear complex. Classical conditioning consisted of a delay paradigm using a 370-ms tone as the conditioned stimulus (CS) and a 100-ms air puff directed at the left cornea as the unconditioned stimulus (US). The CS coterminated with the US. Electrical train stimulation of the contralateral rostral mPFC produced a significant inhibition of air-puff-evoked blinks. The same train stimulation of the rostral mPFC presented during the CS-US interval for 10 successive conditioning sessions significantly reduced the generation of conditioned responses (CRs) as compared with values reached by control animals. Interestingly, the percentage of CRs almost reached control values when train stimulation of the rostral mPFC was removed from the fifth conditioning session on. The electrical stimulation of the rostral mPFC in well conditioned animals produced a significant decrease in the percentage of CRs. Moreover, the stimulation of the rostral mPFC was also able to modify the kinematics (latency, amplitude, and velocity) of evoked CRs. These results suggest that the rostral mPFC is a potent inhibitor of reflexively evoked and classically conditioned eyeblinks but that activation prevents only the expression of CRs, not their latent acquisition. Functional and behavioral implications of this inhibitory role of the rostral mPFC are discussed.