儿童脑脓肿的显微外科治疗体会

目的 儿童脑脓肿显微外科手术切除的治疗经验总结和分析.方法 回顾性分析2000年1月至2007年12月30例行显微外科手术切除治疗儿童脑脓肿的方法和疗效.结果 手术均全切除脓肿壁.随访21例治愈患儿,17例仍保持治愈,余4例未经影像复查但无异常临床表现.随访6例好转者,2例转为治愈,2例留有癫痫,1例留有左侧肢体偏瘫,1例死于先天性心脏病.结论 儿童脑脓肿的显微外科手术切除,应当选择适当的手术时机,并且要选择合适的手术入路,必要时行术中B超定位,完整剥离脓肿壁,能达到治愈的目的.     

Brain abscess in childhood-long-term experiences

A retrospective evaluation was performed on 28 cases of paediatric brain abscess (malefemale ratio 2.51; mean age 9.4 years; range 2.8–16 years) diagnosed between 1967 and 1987. In 46%, congenital cyanotic heart disease was identified as a predisposing factor, likewise sinusitis, otitis media or mastoiditis in 29% and immunodeficiency in 11%. Pathogenesis remained unclear in 14%. Initial symptoms and signs were predominantly nonspecific; loss of consciousness occurred in 32% of cases, neurological deficit and seizures each in 25%. Since the availability of CT, both diagnostic delay after hospital admission and mortality were substantially reduced: mean delay from 8.4 to 3.0 days, and mortality from 23% to 0%. Seventeen patients (61%) had follow up examinations 9.6 years (mean) after the acute illness (range 1–21 years). Neurological sequelae were diagnosed in 35% of cases, epilepsy in 29%, epileptic potentials during EEG in 12%, and CNS scars in 50%. Psychological testing revealed no statistically significant differences compared to normal populations. CNS scars, and epilepsy and/or epileptic potentials were more common after excision (7 patients) when compared to patients treated by aspiration and/or antibiotics alone (21 patients). It is concluded that excision of brain abscess should be avoided whenever possible. Therapy of choice consists of the administration of adequate antibiotics with or without CT-guided needle aspirations.     

Successful treatment of a brain abscess with antibiotics and drainage puncture in an 11-year-old boy with a complex cyanotic heart defect

A Blalock-Taussig-anastomosis was performed at the age of 2 years in a boy with transposition of the great arteries, ventricular septal defect, and pulmonary atresia. Nine years later he developed a transient aphasia. Cranial computed tomography (CT-scan) revealed a structure compatible with brain abscess. The boy was conscious and no neurological deficit was found. Initial therapy consisted of Ampicillin, Tobramycin, and Metronidazole, 12 days later an acute hemiplegia developed. 30 ml of pus were aspirated from the brain abscess, and the boy's condition dramatically improved. Streptococcus milleri was found bacteriologically and antibiotic therapy was continued over six weeks. Serial CT-scans during and after therapy demonstrated disappearance of the brain abscess. The presented case shows that after a shunt procedure in cyanotic heart disease right-to-left-shunting and therefore chronic oxygen desaturation and polycythemia are still present as facilitating factors for focal encephalomalacia, cerebritis, and brain abscess. In case of short duration of neurological symptoms and a size of abscess less than 4 cm in diameter antibiotic therapy without total excision may eliminate the infection.     

Brain abscess in hepatopulmonary syndrome associated with biliary atresia

The first‐choice therapy for biliary atresia (BA) is Kasai hepatoportoenterostomy, which has been shown to greatly improve outcome. Various long‐term complications, however, such as portal hypertension and hepatopulmonary syndrome (HPS), can occur in patients with native liver. A rare case of brain abscess in an 11‐year‐old girl with HPS associated with BA is reported. The patient underwent hepatoportoenterostomy for BA at 53 days of age, with resolution of hyperbilirubinemia. At 10 years of age, she was diagnosed with severe HPS with right‐to‐left shunting, and preparations for liver transplantation proceeded. Three months after the diagnosis, she had a right parietal brain abscess. Given that the brain abscess enlarged in size, surgical drainage of the brain abscess was performed. The postoperative course was uneventful, but a slight left hemiplegia remained at discharge. The presumed mechanism of abscess formation in HPS may be right‐to‐left bacterial transit through intrapulmonary vascular dilatations and/or arteriovenous fistulae.     

Anatomic hemispherectomy for intractable epilepsy in a patient with unilateral schizencephaly

Schizencephaly is a rare congenital cortical brain malformation defined by unilateral or bilateral clefts of the cerebral hemispheres. These malformations are often associated with medically intractable epilepsy. Surgical solutions include lesionectomy, lobectomy, or hemispherectomy. The authors describe the case of an anatomic hemispherectomy for medically intractable epilepsy in an 8-year-old boy with a large schizencephalic cleft. Seven years prior to his epilepsy surgery, the patient underwent placement of a ventriculoperitoneal shunt for communicating hydrocephalus that resulted in severe left-to-right shift. Subsequently, medically refractory epilepsy developed and the patient underwent an anatomic hemispherectomy for seizure control. The preoperative brain shift remained after the surgery, although the patient tolerated the procedure well and was seizure free postoperatively. Anatomic hemispherectomy is a viable option for treating medically intractable epilepsy in a schizencephalic pediatric patient-even one with considerable brain shift.     

应用神经内镜治疗儿童多房脑脓肿

目的：神经内镜技术在最近20年取得了重大进步并得到了广泛应用,而儿童多房脑脓肿目前仍是神经外科的急症之一,死亡率和致残率较高。该文通过总结应用神经内镜治疗儿童多房脑脓肿的临床经验,探讨神经内镜技术在手术治疗儿童多房脑脓肿中的作用。方法：2002年1月至2007年6月,该研究应用神经内镜治疗了16例多房脑脓肿的患儿。结果：该组16例患儿术后颅高压症状均缓解, 术后复查头颅CT/MRI示脓肿腔消失,仅存脓肿壁。随访到的14例患儿随访时间为6个月至5年,13例脓肿壁均消失,术后脓肿复发1例。结论：用神经内镜治疗儿童多房脑脓肿具有安全、高效、并发症少的优势。［中国当代儿科杂志,2009,11（1）：41-43］     

Brain abscess in childhood: a 28-year experience

Brain abscess is an uncommon intracranial suppurative infectious disease, especially in children. The clinical presentation, treatment and outcome of 75 children with brain abscesses admitted to the Department of Pediatric Infectious Diseases at Hacettepe University Faculty of Medicine were retrospectively analyzed. Seventy-five cases of brain abscess within a 28-year period were included in this study. Fever and headache were the most common presenting symptoms. Cyanotic congenital heart disease was the most common predisposing factor. The most common pathogen was Streptococcus spp. Although congenital heart disease remained the most common predisposing factor for development of intracerebral abscess, the rate of immunocompromised diseases as a predisposing factor of brain abscess has increased in recent years, and better management of otogenic infections also influences the prevalence of the disease.     

Brain abscess secondary to dental braces

We report a case of Haemophilus aphrophilus brain abscess presenting 6 weeks after application of dental braces in an adolescent patient with a formerly undetected patent foramen ovale. Neither brain abscess nor invasive H. aphrophilus infection has previously been associated with dental braces. Application or tightening of dental braces may cause bacteremia and invasive disease from oral commensals.     

Childhood epilepsy in relation to mental handicap and behavioural disorders

Epidemiological studies indicate that there is a high rate of mental retardation and behavioural problems in children with epilepsy. In some cases both the epilepsy and the mental retardation will have a common cause, such as a metabolic disorder or brain trauma. However, in other children, the epilepsy itself may cause either temporary or permanent learning problems. When permanent learning disability can be prevented it is important to treat the epilepsy early and effectively. Children with specific learning difficulties and memory problems can benefit greatly from appropriate management. There are many causes of behavioural disturbance in children with epilepsy. These causes include the epilepsy itself, treatment of the epilepsy, reactions to the epilepsy, associated brain damage/dysfunction and causes that are equally applicable to children who do not have epilepsy. Identifying the cause or causes in each child allows rational management to be provided. Antiepileptic treatment with medication or surgery can either improve the situation or make matters worse. The treatment should be tailored to the needs of the individual child. If surgery is required, there is a strong argument for performing this early in life, both to allow the greatest opportunity for brain plasticity and also to allow the child full benefit from the important developmental and educational years, without the problems that can be associated with the epilepsy. Skilled management of children with epilepsy who have mental retardation and/or behavioural problems can be very rewarding both for the family and for the professionals involved.     

儿童外伤性癫痫危险因素及特点

目的 研究儿童外伤性癫痫危险因素与特点。方法 对42例外伤性癫痫患者的抽搐形式、产砂颅CT、脑电图资料进行回顾性分析。结果 1.抽搐形式部分性发作20例,全身性发作14例,转型者8例;2.头颅CT：脑挫裂伤15例,脑出血14例,颅骨骨折10例。3. 脑电图：伤后6个月内,癫痫痫样波者26例,局限慢波11例。结论 外伤性癫痫与年龄、离损伤程度及类型等有关。儿童轻微脑损伤即可导致癫痫早期发作,且易成为癫痫持续状态。     

Non-Pharmacologic Management of Epilepsy

Non pharmacological treatment, in addition to pharmacological treatment is indicated in patients with refractory/pharmacoresistant epilepsy and includes ketogenic diet, deep brain stimulator, vagal nerve stimulator, transcranial magnetic stimulation and epilepsy surgery. Ketogenic diet has been recommended since 1921 and has been proved to be a safe and effective treatment for intractable epilepsy. Deep brain stimulator, has been used in the treatment of movement disorders for many years and recently been tried in the treatment of pharmacoresistant epilepsy. Vagus nerve stimulator is increasingly being used as an effective seizure aborting technique in patients not responding to anticonvulsants. Transcranial magnetic stimulation is a noninvasive brain stimulation technique which is being increasingly researched for use in patients with medication-refractory seizures who are not suitable candidates for surgery. Evolution of epilepsy surgery including Vagal nerve stimulator and Deep brain stimulator, as a successful treatment modality for intractable epilepsy has been influenced over the last decade by substantial advancement in imaging and operative/device related technology. The current article reviews the indications, mechanism of action, technological aspects and efficacy of the aforementioned modalities in the treatment of intractable/pharmacoresistant epilepsy in pediatric age group.     

Management of brain abscess in children

Aim: Brain abscesses continue to pose a problem in paediatric neurosurgery because the associated morbidity and mortality have remained significant throughout the antibiotic and CT era. The objective of this paper is to report the treatment of 28 children with the diagnosis of brain abscess. Methods: We report our experience with the surgical management of brain abscesses in 28 paediatric patients between 1981 and 2005. The following parameters were assessed: age, gender, clinical manifestations, physical examination, radiological data, aetiological agent, treatment and clinical evolution of the patients. Results: Patients' age varied from 2 weeks to 16 years (mean 8.6 years); 17 were male. The most notable predisposing factor was contiguous infection in 11 cases, of which six were chronic otitis media. The abscess was supratentorial in 27 children with only one infratentorial case. In all patients, treatment consisted of a combination of surgical evacuation and antibiotics. In two children, the evacuation of pus was via transfontanelar puncture. Positive abscess cultures were obtained from 15 abscesses, and gram‐negative were the main bacteria involved. Nine patients had neurological sequelae (seizure, cognitive impairment and paresis); two deaths occurred. Conclusions: Brain abscess in children continues to be associated with high rates of neurological impairment and death.     

Brain abscess caused by <Emphasis Type="Italic">Lactococcus lactis cremoris</Emphasis> in a child

Lactococcus lactis cremoris infections are very rare in humans. It is recognized as a commensal organism of mucocutaneous surfaces of cattle, and is occasionally isolated from human mucocutaneous surfaces. We report a brain abscess caused by L. lactis cremoris in an immunocompetent child. A 19-month-old female patient was admitted with fever and vomiting. Brain computed tomography (CT) revealed brain abscess. L. lactis cremoris was isolated from culture of the abscess material. The patient was treated with pus drainage from brain abscess and antibiotics including vancomycin and meropenem. The patient recovered completely. To our knowledge, this is the first report of a L. lactis cremoris infection in children.     

儿童脑脓肿37例临床特征和治疗随访

目的 阐明儿童脑脓肿临床特征,探讨脑脓肿的治疗方法。方法 对３７例经ＣＴ和ＭＲＩ确诊为脑逐月中的患儿临床特征进行分析,对疗效进行观察,对其中２３例进行病后３个月～５年的随访。结果 ３７例患儿中未查到原发感染灶的２９例（７８％）,以癫痫为首发症状者２０例（５４％）,头痛者１８例（４９％）,发热者１３例（３５％）,３０例经保守治疗１１例治愈,１２例好转,总有效率７７％;７例采取外科治疗,１例治愈,３例     

Occurrence and outcome of epilepsy in children younger than 2 years

OBJECTIVE: To analyze the occurrence of epilepsy between the ages of 28 days and 2 years and the outcome of children with the onset of epilepsy at that age. STUDY DESIGN: The study included all children who were born between January 1, 1976, and December 31, 1986, in an area with a mean annual live birth rate of 5027 and who were treated for epilepsy at that age. Follow-up data were gathered from medical records and/or with a questionnaire. RESULTS: By age 2 years, 72 children had epilepsy, giving a cumulative incidence rate of 1.3 cases per 1000 children (95% CI, 1.0-1.6). Thirty-two (97.0%) of the 33 children with cryptogenic epilepsy were without medication at the time of the last visit and had been in remission for a mean period of 13.0 years (range, 7.4-19.7 years), in contrast to only 5 (15.6%) of the 32 children with symptomatic epilepsy (difference, 81.3%; 95% CI of the difference, 63.0%-91.3%; P <.0001). In the logistic regression model, the type of the epilepsy (symptomatic/cryptogenic) was the only variable that explained the persistence of epilepsy during the follow-up (P <.05). Thirty-one (93.9%) of the 33 children with cryptogenic epilepsy were mentally normal, as opposed to only 3 (9.4%) of the 32 children with symptomatic epilepsy (difference 84. 6%; 95% CI of the difference, 66.3%-93.4%; P <.0001). CONCLUSION: The outcome of children whose epilepsy starts between the ages of 28 days and 2 years is determined by the underlying brain disease, and the outcome is good in cryptogenic cases.     

Post-traumatic epilepsy]

There might be 3 different forms of epilepsy following head injury: earliest seizures with occasional characteristics, early seizures prompting considerations of differential diagnosis, and, late seizures which might have a chronic course = posttraumatic epilepsy proper. The risks to have posttraumatic epilepsy for a child suffering from head injury are: penetrating cranial trauma, early seizures, intracranial hemorrhage, unconsciousness > 24 hours, depressed fracture with dural laceration and unconsciousness > 24 hours, fractures on the base of the skull, focal synchronous activity in the EEG which is related to the site of brain injury. If a or > or = 2 of b-g are given we recommend prophylactic antiepileptic therapy: in the younger (< 5 years) with a low dose of phenobarbital and in the elder (> 5 years) carbamazepine for at least 2 years of treatment.     

Risk and risk factors for epilepsy in shunt-treated children with hydrocephalus

ObjectEpilepsy is a major comorbidity in children with hydrocephalus (HC) and has a serious impact on their developmental outcomes. There are variable influencing factors, thus the individual risk for developing epilepsy remains unclear. Our aim was to analyse risk factors for developing epilepsy in children with shunted HC.MethodsA retrospective, single-centre analysis of 361 patients with the diagnosis of HC was performed. Age at HC diagnosis, shunt treatment, development of epilepsy, epilepsy course, and the aetiology of HC were considered. The influence of shunt therapy, including its revisions and complications, on the development of epilepsy was investigated.ResultsOne-hundred forty-three patients with HC (n = 361) had a diagnosis of epilepsy (39.6%). The median age at the first manifestation of epilepsy was 300 days (range:1–6791; Q1:30, Q3: 1493). The probability of developing epilepsy after HC decreases with increasing age. The most significant influence on the development of epilepsy is that of the HC itself and its underlying aetiology (HR 5.9; 95%-CI [3–10.5]; p < 0.001). Among those, brain haemorrhage is associated with the highest risk for epilepsy (HR 7.9; 95%-CI [4.2–14.7]; p < 0.01), while shunt insertion has a lower influence (HR 1.5; 95%-CI [0.99; 2.38]; p = 0.06). The probability of epilepsy increases stepwise per shunt revision (HR 2.0; p = 0.03 after 3 or more revisions). Five hundred days after the development of HC, 20% of the children had a diagnosis of epilepsy. Shunt implantation at a younger age has no significant influence on the development of epilepsy nor does sex.ConclusionChildren with HC are at high risk for developing epilepsy. The development of epilepsy is correlated mainly with HC's underlying aetiology. The highest risk factor for the development of epilepsy seems to be brain haemorrhage. The age at shunt implantation appears to be unrelated to the development of epilepsy, while structural brain damage at a young age, shunt revisions and complications are independent risk factors. The onset of epilepsy is most likely to take place within the first 500 days after the diagnosis of HC.     

Current approaches to management of cerebral fungal infection in pediatric patients with hematologic disorders

We report 2 pediatric cases of cerebral fungal infection. A patient with severe aplastic anemia developed an Aspergillus species brain abscess and pulmonary aspergillosis after peripheral blood stem cell transplantation. Despite administration of micafungin, amphotericin B, and flucytosine, the patient died 2 months after the transplantation because of underlying pulmonary aspergillosis. Another patient with acute myelogenous leukemia developed a huge brain abscess with histopathologic findings suspicious of mucormycosis. This patient was cured with combination therapy of antifungal agents and intensive surgery, without sequelae. It is important to perform aggressive multimodality treatment, when indicated, including surgical intervention, even if in myelosuppression.     

Brain abscess in children – epidemiology,predisposing factors and management in the modern medicine era

Aims: Brain abscess is rare in children. Predisposing factors are found in almost 85% of cases. Overall, 25% of brain abscesses develop in children, mostly in the 4–7 years age group. Our study aimed to characterize children with brain abscesses treated in our hospital, identify risk factors, pathogens and short‐term outcome. Methods: A retrospective cohort of 20 years period, (1989–2009) included 27children (0–18 years). Medical records were analysed for age, gender, presenting symptoms and signs, predisposing factors, laboratory tests, imaging, microbiology results, treatment and outcome. Results: Of all the children, 63% (17/27) were male patients; mean age was 7.9 years and 52% were referred from other hospitals. Predisposing factors were identified in 81%, congenital heart disease and otitis were rare and sinusitis was found in 22% of the children. Main symptoms and signs included headaches, fever, neurological signs convulsions, (41%, 81%, 78% and 41% respectively). In 30% of cases, cultures were sterile. All patients were operated in addition to antibiotic treatment. Outcome was good with low mortality rate (3.7%). Conclusions: Manifestations of brain abscess may be subtle. A high index of suspicion and early imaging are warranted, different predisposing factors may reflect early intervention for congenital heart diseases. Mortality is rare in the modern medicine era.     

Subdural interhemispheric empyema in a 7-year-old boy

Subdural interhemispheric empyema was diagnosed by angiography and computerized tomography (CT) in a 7-year-old boy suffering from acute left hemiparesis. After neurosurgical intervention his condition improved. Peptostreptococcus intermedius was cultured from the empyema. One year after hospitalisation the boy is in good condition. The importance of the CT-scanning for diagnosis and management of brain abscess or empyema is stressed.