Using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) to detect the prefrontal cortical responses to deception under different motivations

In this study, functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) was adopted to investigate the prefrontal cortical responses to deception under different motivations. By using a feigned memory impairment paradigm, 19 healthy adults were asked to deceive under the two different motivations: to obtain rewards and to avoid punishments. Results indicated that when deceiving for obtaining rewards, there was greater neural activation in the right inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) than the control condition. When deceiving for avoiding punishments, there was greater activation in the right inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) and the left middle frontal gyrus (MFG) than the control condition. In addition, deceiving for avoiding punishments led to greater neural activation in the left MFG than when deceiving for obtaining rewards. Furthermore, the results showed a moderate hit rate in detecting deception under either motivation. These results demonstrated that deception with different motivations led to distinct responses in the prefrontal cortex. fNIRS could provide a useful technique for the detection of deception with strategy of feigning memory impairment under different motivations.OCIS codes: (170.2655) Functional monitoring and imaging, (170.5380) Physiology, (170.3880) Medical and biological imaging     

A brief review on the history of human functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) development and fields of application

This review is aimed at celebrating the upcoming 20th anniversary of the birth of human functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). After the discovery in 1992 that the functional activation of the human cerebral cortex (due to oxygenation and hemodynamic changes) can be explored by NIRS, human functional brain mapping research has gained a new dimension. fNIRS or optical topography, or near-infrared imaging or diffuse optical imaging is used mainly to detect simultaneous changes in optical properties of the human cortex from multiple measurement sites and displays the results in the form of a map or image over a specific area. In order to place current fNIRS research in its proper context, this paper presents a brief historical overview of the events that have shaped the present status of fNIRS. In particular, technological progresses of fNIRS are highlighted (i.e. from single-site to multi-site functional cortical measurements (images)), introduction of the commercial multi-channel systems, recent commercial wireless instrumentation and more advanced prototypes.     

Model-based analysis of rapid event-related functional near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) data: a parametric validation study

To validate the usefulness of a model-based analysis approach according to the general linear model (GLM) for functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) data, a rapid event-related paradigm with an unpredictable stimulus sequence was applied to 15 healthy subjects. A parametric design was chosen wherein four differently graded contrasts of a flickering checkerboard were presented, allowing directed hypotheses about the rank order of the evoked hemodynamic response amplitudes. The results indicate the validity of amplitude estimation by three main findings (a) the GLM approach for fNIRS data is capable to identify human brain activation in the visual cortex with inter-stimulus intervals of 4-9 s (6.5 s average) whereas in non-visual areas no systematic activation was detectable; (b) the different contrast level intensities lead to the hypothesized rank order of the GLM amplitude parameters: visual cortex activation evoked by highest contrast>moderate contrast>lowest contrast>no stimulation; (c) analysis of null-events (no stimulation) did not produce any significant activation in the visual cortex or in other brain areas. We conclude that a model-based GLM approach delivers valid fNIRS amplitude estimations and enables the analysis of rapid event-related fNIRS data series, which is highly relevant in particular for cognitive fNIRS studies.     

Activities in the frontal cortex and gait performance are modulated by preparation. An fNIRS study

Neural activities in the primary motor cortex and supplementary motor area increase during the preparation as well as execution of voluntary movements of the hand and foot. However, there are few studies concerning preparatory activities of the brain preceding walking performance. We investigated how a verbal instruction "ready" before walking affected cortical activations and walking performances using a functional near-infrared spectroscopy. Seven healthy subjects performed two locomotor tasks on a treadmill with a verbal instruction "ready" before the treadmill was started (prepared walking; PW) and without it (simple walking; SW). Cadence was smaller and stride length was longer in PW than in SW. Increases of oxygenated hemoglobin (oxyHb) in the frontal regions especially in the prefrontal and premotor cortices were greater in PW than in SW both during the preparation and walking periods. These results suggested that preparation for walking cued by a verbal instruction enhanced frontal activations both during the preparation and execution of walking as well as walking performance.     

Assessment of the cerebral cortex during motor task behaviours in adults: a systematic review of functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) studies

Functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) is an emerging tool for non-invasively monitoring the haemodynamic response to brain activation. The technique has been widely adopted to investigate cortical responses during motor tasks in health and disease. This systematic review provides a critical analysis of the research findings in the hope of summating relevant information, identifying consistent outcomes acquired using different spectrometers, clarifying data inconsistencies, and learning from the common challenges across disciplines. The spatiotemporal characteristics, reliability, repeatability and modulation of typical cortical response evoked by motor stimulation are all evaluated in detail. The review assesses the contribution of the technique to advancing our understanding of motor skill learning and control in the context of tasks of everyday living, athletic performance, and recovery from neurological illness. Finally, the limitations of current fNIRS technologies are examined and a series of recommendations for future studies are provided based upon the reviewed literature.     

基于功能性近红外光谱技术的不同吞咽任务态前额叶皮质功能研究

目的：采用功能性近红外光谱技术（functional near-infrared spectroscopy,fNIRS）研究不同吞咽任务态前额叶皮质激活情况。方法：纳入19例健康成人受试,在fNIRS采集过程中执行经注射器小口吞咽及经吸管连续吞咽任务,分析不同吞咽任务态前额叶皮质激活模式的差异。结果：在执行小口吞咽任务态,前额叶中显著激活的亚区为双侧的腹外侧前额叶皮层（ventrolateral prefrontal,VLPFC）;执行连续吞咽任务态,前额叶中显著激活的亚区为右侧腹外侧前额叶皮层、双侧的背外侧前额叶皮层（dorsolateral prefrontal cortex,DLPFC）及双侧的眶额皮层（orbitofrontal cortex,OFC）,其中右侧额极区（frontopolar prefrontal cortex,FPC）激活呈边缘化显著。经配对t检验发现,连续吞咽任务在右侧背外侧前额叶皮层（DLPFC）及右侧额极区（FPC）中的激活程度明显高于小口吞咽任务（P<0.05）。结论：fNIRS可应用于吞咽相关的脑功能研究。前额叶参与吞咽过程,并且以接近自然状态...     

Dynamic functional connectivity revealed by resting-state functional near-infrared spectroscopy

The brain is a complex network with time-varying functional connectivity (FC) and network organization. However, it remains largely unknown whether resting-state fNIRS measurements can be used to characterize dynamic characteristics of intrinsic brain organization. In this study, for the first time, we used the whole-cortical fNIRS time series and a sliding-window correlation approach to demonstrate that fNIRS measurement can be ultimately used to quantify the dynamic characteristics of resting-state brain connectivity. Our results reveal that the fNIRS-derived FC is time-varying, and the variability strength (Q) is correlated negatively with the time-averaged, static FC. Furthermore, the Q values also show significant differences in connectivity between different spatial locations (e.g., intrahemispheric and homotopic connections). The findings are reproducible across both sliding-window lengths and different brain scanning sessions, suggesting that the dynamic characteristics in fNIRS-derived cerebral functional correlation results from true cerebral fluctuation.OCIS codes: (170.2655) Functional monitoring and imaging, (170.5380) Physiology, (170.3880) Medical and biological imaging     

老年人平衡功能的脑网络变化：基于功能性近红外线光谱研究

目的 探究老年人完成平衡控制任务的脑网络特征。方法 2022年1月至4月,于广州医科大学附属第五医院和社区招募22例健康年轻人和20例健康老年人,两组站在足底压力测试板上,完成睁眼或闭眼站立任务,功能性近红外光谱测量左、右前额叶皮质(PFC)和初级运动区(PMC)功能连接强度。结果 老年人闭眼状态下的椭圆面积(Z=-2.884, P <0.01)和最大摆动范围(Z=-2.481, P <0.05)大于年轻人;站立任务时,老年人左侧(t=2.978, P <0.01)和右侧PFC(Z=-3.123, P <0.01)内部功能连接降低;右PMC-左PFC (t=2.087, P <0.05)和右PFC-左PFC (t=3.471, P <0.001)间功能连接降低。结论 与年轻人相比,老年人在平衡控制任务中出现PFC功能连接降低,可能与早期脑老化有关。     

基于功能性近红外光谱的孤独症谱系障碍儿童可视音乐任务下大脑前额叶激活程度的研究

目的：基于功能性近红外光谱（functional near-infrared spectroscopy,fNIRS）探讨可视音乐任务对孤独症谱系障碍（autism spectrum disorder,ASD）儿童的大脑前额叶激活程度的影响。方法：本研究纳入18例孤独症谱系障碍儿童（ASD组）和18例正常儿童（TD组）,使用22通道fNIRS系统测量两组儿童大脑前额叶静息态和可视音乐任务中儿童大脑前额叶的HbO情况。数据处理和分析通过NIRS-KIT处理软件包和其他内部自定义的MatlabR2013b实现。结果：ASD儿童被激活的通道数比TD儿童少;TD儿童rDLPFC、rFPC、mFPC、lDLPFC、lFPC区域任务态HbO的β值的平均值大于静息态的（P<0.05）,而ASD儿童仅表现为lDLPFC区域任务态HbO的β值的平均值大于静息态的（P<0.05）;TD组儿童的rFPC、lDLPFC、lFPC区域的HbO改变量大于ASD组（P<0.05）。结论：ASD儿童大脑前额叶存在功能激活的弱化,可视音乐任务的即时效应可以使ASD儿童大脑前额叶lDLPFC区域HbO激活...     

Testing the potential of a virtual reality neurorehabilitation system during performance of observation,imagery and imitation of motor actions recorded by wireless functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS)

Background  

Several neurorehabilitation strategies have been introduced over the last decade based on the so-called simulation hypothesis. This hypothesis states that a neural network located in primary and secondary motor areas is activated not only during overt motor execution, but also during observation or imagery of the same motor action. Based on this hypothesis, we investigated the combination of a virtual reality (VR) based neurorehabilitation system together with a wireless functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) instrument. This combination is particularly appealing from a rehabilitation perspective as it may allow minimally constrained monitoring during neurorehabilitative training.     

Effect of neck and trunk rotation speeds on cerebral cortex activity and standing postural stability: a functional near-infrared spectroscopy study

[Purpose] The aim of the present study was to determine whether different neck and trunk rotation speeds influence standing postural stability or frontal and temporal cortical activity during rotation in healthy young adults. [Subjects and Methods] Twelve healthy volunteers participated in this study. A custom turn-table operated by one of the experimenters was placed on a platform to assess postural perturbation. Subjects were asked to stand barefoot on the turn-table in an upright position with their feet together, and measurements were obtained during high- and low-speed rotations. Postural stability was tested using a force platform and a head sensor. Cerebral cortex activity was measured using functional near-infrared spectroscopy. Brain activity, center of pressure, and head perturbation were measured simultaneously for each subject. [Results] Significant differences were found in the center of pressure and the head angular velocity between high- and low-speed rotations. However, compared to baseline, oxygenated hemoglobin levels were not significantly different during high- or low-speed rotations. [Conclusion] Automatic postural responses to neck and trunk rotation while standing did not significantly activate the cerebral cortex. Therefore, the response to stimuli from the feet may be controlled by the spinal reflex rather than the cerebral cortex.Key words: Rotation speed, Brain activity, Postural stability     

功能性近红外光谱应用于脑认知领域的可视化分析

目的：对功能性近红外光谱技术应用于脑认知相关研究的现状、热点及前沿行可视化分析。方法：检索Web of Science（WOS）数据库2012年1月1日～2022年12月31日功能性近红外光谱技术应用于脑认知研究的文献,使用CiteSpace 5.7软件进行可视化分析。结果：最终纳入文献1685篇,文献年发表量呈增长趋势。Ann-Christine Ehlis是发文最多的作者（36篇）,美国是发文量最多的国家（480篇）,德国图宾根大学是发文量最多的机构（47篇）,发文机构间合作较密切。研究热点集中于认知障碍及儿童脑发育障碍等认知疾病的神经机制研究、认知水平测量及认知疾病治疗评价等方面。结论：功能性近红外光谱技术在脑认知领域的应用处于发展阶段,国内机构应继续强化合作,近年研究开始结合多模态检测数据,研究者可进一步将多模态大数据结合人工智能建立各类认知疾病的认知评估、疗效评价等模型,实现脑认知疾病的客观化精准医疗。     

Hemodynamic responses in rat brain during transcranial direct current stimulation: a functional near-infrared spectroscopy study

In the present study, we monitored hemodynamic responses in rat brains during transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). Seven rats received transcranial anodal stimulation with 200 μA direct current (DC) on their right barrel cortex for 10 min. The concentration changes of oxygenated hemoglobin (oxy-Hb) were continuously monitored during stimulation (10 min) and after stimulation (20 min). The trend of hemodynamic response changes was modeled using linear regression, and the relationship between incremental and decremental rates of oxy-Hb was investigated by correlation analysis. Our results showed that the oxy-Hb concentration was almost linearly increased and decreased during and after stimulation, respectively. In addition, a significant negative correlation (p < 0.05) was found between the rate of increase of oxy-Hb during stimulation and the rate of decrease of oxy-Hb after stimulation, indicating that the recovery time after tDCS may not depend on the total amount of hemodynamic changes in the stimulated brain area. Our results also demonstrated considerable individual variability in the rate of change of hemodynamic responses even with the same direct current dose to identical brain regions. This suggests that individual differences in tDCS after-effects may originate from intrinsic differences in the speed of DC stimulation “uptake” rather than differences in the total capacity of DC uptake, and thus the stimulation parameters may need to be customized for each individual in order to maximize tDCS after-effects.OCIS codes: (170.0170) Medical optics and biotechnology, (170.2655) Functional monitoring and imaging, (170.6510) Spectroscopy, tissue diagnostics     

脑卒中后完全性失语症患者功能连接模式的功能性近红外光谱成像研究

目的:采用功能性近红外光谱技术(functional near-infrared spectroscopy,f NIRS)观察脑卒中后完全性失语症患者功能连接模式的特征。方法:选取脑卒中后完全性失语症患者10例,脑卒中后非失语症患者10例为非失语症对照组,健康中老年人21例为健康对照组。采用f NIRS采集8min的静息态数据,并选择与语言相关的关键脑区,包括背外侧前额叶(dorsolateral prefrontal cortex,DLPFC)、Broca区、颞上回(superior temporal gyrus,STG)、颞中回(middle temporal gyrus,MTG)、Wernicke区、角回、辅助运动区(supplementary motor area,SMA)作为感兴趣区,分别与全脑做相关分析,获得各组的脑功能连接图。结果:与健康对照组比较,完全性失语症组全脑语言网络功能连通性和连接比下降,其中连接比下降有显著性意义(P0.05),同时在左侧DLPFC-右侧SMA、左侧DLPFC-右侧Wernicke、左侧MTG-右侧MTG、左侧SMA-右侧Wernicke、左侧DLPFC-左侧SMA、右侧DLPFC-左侧SMA、左侧SMA-右侧SMA间的功能连接差异有显著性意义(P0.05)。相较于非失语症组,完全性失语症组表现出左侧MTG-左侧角回间功能连接下降且差异有显著性意义(P0.05)。结论:脑卒中后完全性失语症患者全脑语言网络的功能连通性与连接比以及关键语言区之间的功能连接模式存在异常,相关脑区之间的功能连接减弱可能是引起脑卒中后语言功能减弱的原因之一。其中左侧MTG-左侧角回间的功能连接可能为关键功能连接,左侧MTG和角回有望成为针对脑卒中后完全性失语症患者的新的神经调控靶点。     

Sex and age dependencies of cerebral blood volume changes during cognitive activation: a multichannel near-infrared spectroscopy study

In this study, we measured the change in cerebral hemoglobin concentrations during a cognitive task using multichannel near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), and investigated the relationship between regional cerebral blood volume and sex, age, and task performance. Thirty-nine healthy volunteers (24 males and 15 females; mean age, 33.0 years) participated after giving their informed consent and performed a word fluency task. The relative oxy-hemoglobin concentration ([oxy-Hb]) was measured using frontal and temporal probes with two sets of 24-channel NIRS machines. The effects of sex, age, and task performance on [oxy-Hb] changes were analyzed using analysis of covariance: with sex, age, and task performance as independent variables, and [oxy-Hb] changes as dependent variables, and years of education as covariates. The effects on [oxy-Hb] increase were significant in many channels in the frontal and temporal probes for sex, that is the most prominent effect, and in a few frontal channels for age: [oxy-Hb] increases were larger in males than in females, and in the young than in the middle-aged. The effects on [oxy-Hb] increase were not significant for task performance, but [oxy-Hb] increases in subjects with low performance tended to be larger than those in subjects with high performance. The results demonstrated that multichannel NIRS could detect cerebral activation during cognitive tasks and clarify sex- and age-dependent differences in such cerebral activation. Sex- and age-dependent differences in cerebral activation, as demonstrated in the present study, should be considered when interpreting cerebral blood volume, cerebral blood flow, and cerebral glucose metabolism data.     

Frontal lobe activation during object permanence: data from near-infrared spectroscopy

The ability to create and hold a mental schema of an object is one of the milestones in cognitive development. Developmental scientists have named the behavioral manifestation of this competence object permanence. Convergent evidence indicates that frontal lobe maturation plays a critical role in the display of object permanence, but methodological and ethical constrains have made it difficult to collect neurophysiological evidence from awake, behaving infants. Near-infrared spectroscopy provides a noninvasive assessment of changes in oxy- and deoxyhemoglobin and total hemoglobin concentration within a prescribed region. The evidence described in this report reveals that the emergence of object permanence is related to an increase in hemoglobin concentration in frontal cortex.     

Age dependency of the hemodynamic response as measured by functional near-infrared spectroscopy

Aging reduces cerebral blood flow in association cortices during rest. However, the influence of age on functional brain activation is still controversial. The aim of our study was to examine age dependency of brain activation in primary and association cortices. Therefore, changes in the concentration of oxy- and deoxyhemoglobin as well as changes in the redox state of cytochrome-c-oxidase (Cyt-Ox) were measured by functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) in the lateral prefrontal and motor cortices during an event-related Stroop interference task. Fourteen young (23.9 +/- 3.1 years old) and 14 elderly subjects (65.1 +/- 3.1) participated in the study. Data revealed two effects of aging on brain activation: (1) Elderly and young subjects used the lateral prefrontal cortex to cope with interference during the Stroop task. In young subjects, the vascular response was higher during incongruent than neutral trials in the entire examined lateral prefrontal cortex. However, in the elderly, all lateral prefrontal regions showed a hemodynamic response but not necessarily a specific interference effect. (2) The hemodynamic response was reduced in elderly subjects in the lateral prefrontal association cortex, but obviously not in the motor cortex. We propose that calculating effect sizes is the only reliable approach to analyze age-related effects in fNIRS studies, because they are independent from the assumed differential pathlength factor. In summary, our findings suggest that aging decreases the hemodynamic response in the frontal association cortex during functional activation, omitting the primary motor cortex.     

Comparison of cortical activation in an upper limb added-purpose task versus a single-purpose task: a near-infrared spectroscopy study

[Purpose] The purpose of this study was to compare prefrontal activations during an added-purpose task with those during a single-purpose task using functional near-infrared spectroscopy. [Subjects] Six healthy right-handed adults were included in this study. [Methods] The participants were instructed to complete both added-purpose and single-purpose activities separately with each hand. The near-infrared spectroscopy probes were placed on the scalp overlying the prefrontal cortex, according to the International 10–20 system (Fz). Changes in the oxygenated hemoglobin and deoxygenated hemoglobin concentrations in the prefrontal cortex were measured during performance of the activities. We then compared the number of activation channels with significant increase in oxygenated hemoglobin, during added-purpose activity to single-purpose activity using both hands separately. [Results] A greater number of widespread activations were observed in the prefrontal cortex during the added-purpose task than during the single-purpose task. These results were noted with both right and left hands. [Conclusion] According to our findings, added-purpose activity can bring about more activation in the prefrontal cortex, which may provide occupational therapists with effective guides in therapeutic practice.Key words: Purposeful activity, Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), Prefrontal cortex     

Frontal lobe function in bipolar disorder: a multichannel near-infrared spectroscopy study

Frontal lobe dysfunction has been implicated as one of the pathophysiological bases of bipolar disorder. Detailed time courses of brain activation in the bipolar disorder group were investigated using multichannel near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), a recently developed functional neuroimaging technology with a high time resolution, and were compared with those in the major depression and healthy control groups. Seventeen patients with bipolar disorder, 11 equally depressed patients with major depression, and 17 healthy controls participated in the study. Changes in oxy hemoglobin concentration ([oxy-Hb]) during cognitive and motor tasks were monitored using frontal and temporal probes of two sets of 24-channel NIRS machines. [oxy-Hb] increases in the bipolar disorder group were smaller than those in the healthy control group during the early period of a verbal fluency task, larger than those in the major depression and healthy control groups during the late period of this task, and were smaller than those in the major depression group during a finger-tapping task. Depressive symptoms and antidepressant dosages did not correlate with [oxy-Hb] changes in the two patient groups. Bipolar disorder and major depression were characterized by preserved but delayed and reduced frontal lobe activations, respectively, in the present high-time-resolution study by multichannel NIRS.     

Atypical prefrontal cortical responses to joint/non-joint attention in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD): A functional near-infrared spectroscopy study

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neuro-developmental disorder, characterized by impairments in one’s capacity for joint attention. In this study, functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) was applied to study the differences in activation and functional connectivity in the prefrontal cortex between children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and typically developing (TD) children. 21 ASD and 20 TD children were recruited to perform joint and non-joint attention tasks. Compared with TD children, children with ASD showed reduced activation and atypical functional connectivity pattern in the prefrontal cortex during joint attention. The atypical development of left prefrontal cortex might play an important role in social cognition defects of children with ASD.OCIS codes: (170.2655) Functional monitoring and imaging, (170.5380) Physiology, (170.3880) Medical and biological imaging