Correlations between antepartum maternal metabolism and child intelligence

BACKGROUND. It is not clear to what extent maternal metabolism during pregnancy affects the cognitive and behavioral function of the offspring by altering brain development in utero. To investigate this question, we correlated measures of metabolism in pregnant diabetic and nondiabetic women with the intellectual development of their offspring. METHODS. The study included 223 pregnant women and their singleton offspring: 89 women had diabetes before pregnancy (pregestational diabetes mellitus), 99 had the onset of diabetes during pregnancy (gestational diabetes mellitus), and 35 had normal carbohydrate metabolism during their pregnancy. We correlated measures of maternal glucose and lipid metabolism (fasting plasma glucose levels, hemoglobin A1c levels, episodes of hypoglycemia, episodes of acetonuria, and plasma beta-hydroxybutyrate and free fatty acid levels) with two measures of intellectual development in the offspring--the mental development index of the Bayley Scales of Infant Development, given at the age of two years, and the Stanford--Binet Intelligence Scale, given at the ages of three, four, and five years and expressed as an average of the three scores. RESULTS. After correction for socioeconomic status, race or ethnic origin, and patient group, the children's mental-development-index scores at the age of two years correlated inversely with the mothers' third-trimester plasma beta-hydroxybutyrate levels (r = -0.21, P less than 0.01); the average Stanford-Binet scores correlated inversely with third-trimester plasma beta-hydroxybutyrate (r = -0.20, P less than 0.02) and free fatty acid (r = -0.27, P less than 0.002) levels. No other correlations were significant. Including various perinatal events (e.g., prematurity and acidemia) in the analyses did not alter the results. CONCLUSIONS. Maternal diabetes during pregnancy may affect behavioral and intellectual development in the offspring. The associations between gestational ketonemia in the mother and a lower IQ in the child warrant continued efforts to avoid ketoacidosis and accelerated starvation in all pregnant women.     

Risk factors for asthma at 3.5 and 7 years of age

Background It has been suggested that factors in early life including exposure to allergens and microbes may influence the development of asthma. Objective To identify risk factors for asthma in early childhood. Methods Eight‐hundred and seventy‐one children of European mothers were enrolled at birth, of whom 385 (44.2%) were born small for gestational age (SGA) and 486 were appropriate for gestational age (AGA). Data were collected at birth, 12 months, 3.5 years of age (y) and 7 y. The outcome of interest (current wheeze) was defined as a positive response to the question: ‘Has your child had wheezing or whistling in the chest in the last 12 months?’ Results Participation rate was 85.4% at 1 y, 63.1% at 3.5 y and 68.0% at 7 y. The prevalence of asthma was 23.8% at 3.5 y and 18.1% at 7 y. Antibiotic use in the first year of life and day care in the first year of life were associated with increased risk of wheeze at 7 y [odds ratio (OR)=4.3 95% confidence interval (CI) (1.8–10.1) and OR=2.8 95% CI (1.2–6.5), respectively], but not at 3.5 y. Exposure to dogs was a risk factor for asthma at both ages [OR=2.1 95% CI (1.1–3.8)] as was sleeping on a used cot mattress in the first year of life [OR=1.8 95% CI (1.0–3.2)]. Conclusions There was a significant association between antibiotic use and day care in the first year of life and wheezing at 7 y but not at 3.5 y. This strengthens the argument that these factors increase the risk of asthma. We have also made the novel observation that sleeping on a used mattress in the first year of life is a risk factor for wheezing at 3.5 and 7 y. Capsule summary This prospective study of 871 children made the novel observation that sleeping on a used mattress in the first year of life was a risk factor for wheezing at 3.5 and 7 y.     

Number of teeth at the age of one year in relation to maternal smoking

The mean number of deciduous teeth at the age of 1 year was investigated in the 10 499 children comprising a birth cohort from 1966 in Northern Finland. The 1563 children whose mothers smoked during pregnancy had on average 0.3 tooth more than the children of the control mothers. Highly significant explanatory variables in a regression analysis on the number of teeth at the age of one were weight at one year, maternal smoking, height at one year and birthweight, whereas gestational age and place of residence on a north-south axis were significant. Differences in cumulative percentages of eruption of the first tooth between the children of smokers and their controls were seen from the age of 4 months, with a maximal difference at 5 months: 30.0% versus 25.6%. The discrepancy was less that 1% by the age of 12 months.     

No Evidence for an Association of Coxsackie Virus Infections during Pregnancy and Early Childhood with Development of Islet Autoantibodies in Offspring of Mothers or Fathers with Type 1 Diabetes

Recent case-control studies reported an increased frequency of antibodies against Coxsackie virus (CV) antigens in patients with newly diagnosed type 1 diabetes and during pregnancy in mothers of diabetic offspring, suggesting a role for CV infections in the pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes (T1D). However, it is not known whether CV infections are causally related to the development of islet autoantibodies or merely represent secondary events in subjects already affected with established islet autoimmunity. Therefore we have prospectively evaluated CV infections from birth, prior to and in parallel with the appearance of islet autoantibodies in offspring of parents with T1D. Using indirect ELISAs, IgG-antibodies (abs) against a panel of CV, and IgG- and IgM-abs to CVB3, CVB4, and CVB5 were measured at 9 months, 2, 5, and 8 years in 28 offspring of mothers or fathers with T1D or of mothers with gestational diabetes who developed persistent islet antibodies (IAA, GADA, IA-2A), and compared to 51 islet autoantibody-negative offspring matched for place and date of birth. CV infections were also determined at delivery in 16 mothers whose offspring developed islet autoantibodies later in life and compared to 110 mothers (matched for HLA-DR, place and date of birth) whose offspring remained islet autoantibody-negative during early childhood. CV-antibodies were detected in only 2/28 (7.1%) offspring who developed islet autoantibodies during follow up and in 7/51 (13.7%) offspring without islet autoantibodies (median follow up time 3.0 years, range 2.0-8.7). CV-IgG abs were detected in one mother (6.3%), whose offspring developed islet autoantibodies during early childhood, compared to 15 mothers (13.6%) with islet autoantibody-negative offspring (P=0.5). Also, partum levels of CV-IgG and CVB3-, -4-, and -5-IgM abs were similar in both groups (median 35 U, 0.08 index (I), 0.08, 0.05 vs. 35 U, 0.06 I, 0.11, and 0.06, resp., P> 0.35 in each case). These data make it unlikely that CV infections during pregnancy or in early childhood play a major role in the induction of islet autoimmunity in offspring of mothers or fathers with T1D or of mothers with gestational diabetes.     

High Incidence of Thyroid Dysfunction in Preterm Infants

To determine the validity of a repeat thyroid function test for preterm infants, and to investigate factors that influence thyroid function of preterm infants, thyroid functions of 105 infants born at <32 weeks'' gestational age were evaluated. Initial serum free thyroxine (fT4) and thyrotropin (TSH) levels were measured during the first 10 days of life, and repeated tests were performed more than 2 weeks apart. We analyzed the effects of gestational age, systemic diseases, and nutrition on the development of thyroid dysfunction. Thirty-one infants (30%) had low fT4 levels (<0.7 ng/dL) in the absence of elevated TSH levels (<7 µU/mL). Thirteen infants (12%) had hypothyroidism (fT4 <0.7 ng/dL, TSH ≥10 µU/mL) and mean age at diagnosis was 28±17 days. Twelve infants had moderately elevated TSH (TSH 10-30 µU/mL) with normal fT4 levels after 1 week of postnatal life. The history of undergone surgical procedure which needed iodine containing disinfectants was significantly frequent in the infant with hypothyroidism and transient TSH elevation. Repeated thyroid function tests are necessary for preterm infants, even though they initially show normal thyroid function, and are especially important for infants who have been exposed to excessive or insufficient levels of iodine.     

Mental health problems and psychopathology in infancy and early childhood. An epidemiological study

The thesis includes seven published papers and an overview concerning the epidemiological aspects of mental health problems and psychopathology in children aged 0-3 years. The research behind the thesis focuses at psychopathology in the first years of life. The aim has been to investigate phenomenology, prevalence, risk factors and predictors, in order to contribute to the knowledge about early developmental psychopathology, and improve the scientific foundation for identification and treatment of mental illness of infants and toddlers, and optimize the foundation for prevention of psychiatric illness in early life. The Copenhagen Child Cohort CCC 2000 was established with inclusion of 6090 children born in year 2000. The cohort was described at baseline with data from Danish National registers and prospective data on mental health and development collected by health nurses at home visits. At 1? years of age a subpopulation was thoroughly investigated regarding child psychiatric illness, in a random sample prevalence study and a case-control study nested in cohort, with cases being children of health nurse concern in the first ten months of living. Mental health disorders were identified in 18% of 1? year-old children from the general population. The prevalence and distribution of main diagnostic categories correspond to results from studies of older children. Disorders of neurodevelopment (mental retardation, disorders of psychological development and ADHD) were associated with pre- and perinatal biological risks and predictors were deviant language development and impaired communication, recorded by health nurses in the first ten months of life. The findings correspond to results from studies of older children and adolescents and point to an earlier emergence of neurodevelopmental psychopathology than has been described hitherto. Risk factors of emotional, behavioural and eating and sleeping disorders were psycho-social adversities in parents, and parent-child relationship disturbances seem to be the key mediator in the risk mechanisms. Risk factors of relationship disorders at child age 1.5 years can be identified before the birth of the child, and predictors can be identified by health nurses from birth to 10 months. In the general child health surveillance between birth and ten months, community health nurses are able to identify risk factors and predictors of child mental disorders at 1.5 years, and by a global and unspecific screen, health nurses identify one fourth of children diagnosed with a mental disorders at age 1? year. The incidence of mental health disorders including mental retardation diagnosed at hospital in the first three years of life was 2%. Sex differences known from studies of older children were demonstrated in children referred to hospitals, with neurodevelopment disorders more often diagnosed in boys, and eating disorders more frequent in girls. CONCLUSIONS: For the first time it is shown in a general population study, that children as young as 1.5 years may suffer from mental illness as older children do. Risk factors and predictors of mental illness can be identified in the first ten months of life, and the association of risks found in studies of older children seem to operate already from birth. The results point to the potentials of mental health screening and intervention in the existing child health surveillance. PERSPECTIVES: The current longitudinal study of CCC 2000 in preschool and school age will expand the present findings and further elucidate the significance of the first years of life regarding child mental health. Future research in this area should include the study of measures to screen and intervene towards mental health problems in infancy within the general child health surveillance.     

Yolk testosterone levels and offspring phenotype correlate with parental age in a precocial bird

Parents, and particularly mothers, can influence their offspring's development in non-genetic ways. Maternal effects can occur during the mothering phase as well as during the embryonic phase. Prenatal maternal effects in birds can be mediated by yolk steroid hormones that influence subsequent offspring development. Studies have focused mainly on the influence of laying females' living conditions on yolk hormonal contents, and rarely on the effects of individual characteristics. Here, we investigated prenatal influence of parent age on yolk steroid levels and on offspring phenotype. We compared Japanese quail at two different ages: at the beginning of their reproductive cycle (11 weeks old: age 1) and six months later, after egg production peak (37 weeks old: age 2). Egg composition, reproductive outcomes, and offspring growth, sexual development and behaviour were studied at both ages. We found that laying rate, fertility and chick survival rates declined between age 1 and age 2. Age 2 eggs had relatively lighter shells and higher yolk plus albumen contents; they also had lower testosterone contents. Age 2 offspring weighed more at hatching than did age 1 offspring; subsequently their growth patterns differed and their sexual development was more precocious. Age 2 offspring were less emotional than age 1 offspring when encountering a novel environment, and they appeared more sensitive to social separation. Our study shows, for the first time in a bird species, a strong impact of parental age on offspring phenotype, and especially on behaviour, an impact that is possibly mediated via modulation of yolk testosterone content.     

Antithyroid drug therapy for Graves' disease during pregnancy. Optimal regimen for fetal thyroid status

We compared fetal and maternal serum indexes of thyroid status at delivery in 70 patients with Graves' disease who required therapy with thionamides (such as propylthiouracil) during pregnancy. Forty-three mothers required thionamides until delivery (Group 1), whereas the drugs were discontinued during pregnancy after remission in 27 mothers (Group 2). Maternal free thyroxine levels were closely correlated with cord levels in both groups, being essentially identical in Group 2 but slightly lower in fetuses than in mothers in Group 1. Normal maternal free thyroxine levels did not preclude fetal hypothyroidism. The mothers and fetuses in Group 1 had a significantly higher incidence of antibodies that inhibit thyrotropin binding than did those of Group 2. However, a significant correlation between maternal levels of these antibodies and cord levels of free thyroxine or triiodothyronine was found only in Group 2, in which some maternal and cord thyroxine levels were in the thyrotoxic range at delivery, presumably because therapy was discontinued. These findings indicate that high free thyroxine levels and the presence of antibodies that inhibit binding of thyrotropin are useful indexes of the fetal need for antithyroid treatment, and that the thionamide dosage that maintains maternal free thyroxine levels in a mildly thyrotoxic range seems appropriate for maintaining euthyroid status in the fetus.     

Gestational diabetes mellitus (class A): a human teratogen?

Between January 1, 1982 and December 31, 1992 we evaluated 200 children of mothers with pregestational or gestational diabetes mellitus through the University of South Florida Genetics/Dysmorphology Clinics. They were a portion of the 22,100 families seen during that period. Pregnant women with diabetes mellitus were not part of this study. One hundred and fifty-two of the 200 were offspring of mothers with gestational diabetes (classes A1 and A2). Class B1 was not encountered as a subclass of gestational diabetes in this series. Twenty-four of the 152 did not have anomalies. Forty-one of the 152 had another primary diagnosis to account for their malformations. Eighty-seven of the 152 had a constellation of anomalies or solitary structural defects as seen in diabetic embryopathy. Chromosomal, monogenic, and other teratogenic causes were excluded. The observed phenotypes matched those seen in offspring of mothers with diabetes mellitus classes B2 to T. They also corroborated the animal studies, indicating that the embryopathy of gestational diabetes has a pathogenesis similar to that in classes B2 to T, and recent epidemiological studies showing a statistically significant increase of anomalies as in diabetic embryopathy in the offspring of gestational diabetes mothers. As per established obstetric practice the testing for gestational diabetes was after gestation 16 weeks. Thus, it was impossible to prove that the anomalies of the 87 propositi were due to gestational diabetes. However, the anomalies occurred during organogenesis as in the other diabetic classes, and inferred that gestational diabetes is a human teratogen. If so, common "idiopathic" malformations may be actually caused by undiagnosed maternal gestational diabetes.     

Children: Inteffigence and behaviour in children born after in-vitro fertilization treatment

This study is the first to examine a large group of childrenborn after in-vitro ferlilization (IVF) who were old enoughat the time of the investigation to make it possible to drawconclusions about the outcome. The aim of the study was to assessthe cognitive, behavioural and social development of the children.The study comprised 99 P/F children, 33–85 months of age,from the University Hospitals of Lund and Malmö, Sweden.The children's development was assessed with the Griffiths'scales of mental development. The children's behaviour was delineatedthrough semistructured interviews with their mothers, covering50 different behaviours. The mothers also filled in Achenbach'sChild Behaviour Checklist (CBCL). All children were examinedby a paediatric neurologist. The results were compared to Swedishpopulation groups. Of the children born, 66% were singletons,22% were twins, 12% were triplets and 28% were born prematurelyin gestational weeks 32–36. The cognitive developmentof the IVF children was excellent, and their behaviour was normalwhen compared with two Swedish population groups. Our conclusionwas that the development, behaviour and social adapta tion ofthe children was very satisfactory.     

Effect of maternal immunization on the antibody response of low responder rats

The offspring of low responder F344 female rats that were immunized with poly(Glu52Lys33Tyr15) aggregated with MeBSA prior to mating showed a higher antibody response to the polypeptide antigen than did the offspring of unimmunized females. Immunization of the mothers with unaggregated polypeptide, or with DNP-BGG, did not affect the antibody response of the offspring even when high doses of antigen were used. When the polypeptide used to immunize the mothers was given as an aggregate, some crossed the placenta to the fetus. The antigen was first detected in the placenta, blood and liver of the fetus at 15 days of gestational age. After birth, it was in the liver and spleen up to 6 weeks af age, and thereafter it was present only in the bone marrow.     

Normal infant by a gestational carrier for a phenylketonuria mother: alternative therapy

The consequences of pregnancies in untreated phenylketonuria (PKU) mothers are a high incidence of spontaneous abortion, intrauterine growth retardation with microcephaly, congenital malformations, and abnormal intellectual development. PKU fathers, on the other hand, produce normal children. Obviously children of PKU women and men are at least heterozygous, proving that the abnormalities produced by the PKU mothers are not genetic but "intrauterinely environmental." Exposure to the mother's metabolic abnormalities affects the fetus during the entire pregnancy. A PKU mother can produce a healthy infant if she maintains a very restricted and controlled diet before and during pregnancy. However, even the most recent reports describe a very high incidence of congenitally abnormal children of PKU mothers, hence dietary compliance is not working in all cases. A 26-year-old PKU patient with proven fertility underwent standard ovarian stimulation in preparation for oocyte retrieval. Following conventional co-incubation of the oocytes and her husband's sperm, two embryos were transferred to the gestational carrier's uterine cavity, resulting in a single intrauterine pregnancy. Birth was induced at 39 weeks of gestation. The male infant weighed 3486 g. Head circumference was 36 cm and length 50.5 cm; there was no evidence of any abnormality and/or malformation. At 1 year of age, the child's growth measurements and development assessments were normal. This describes the first reported successful term pregnancy of an untreated PKU mother with the help of a gestational carrier (GC), producing a normal infant. This is an alternative method that should be offered to PKU women who are unable and/or unwilling to maintain a well controlled diet before and during pregnancy.     

Is Immunotherapy for Habitual Aborters an Immunologically Hazardous Procedure for Infants?

Physical development and tests of immunologic function are reported from the first year of life for 13 infants born to mothers who were habitual aborters and who had undergone subcutaneous vaccination with their husband's lymphocytes. The mean weight of the infants at birth was 2,975 +/- 540 g, including one infant who was small for dates. Physical development parameters for the first year were all within normal range. Immunologic studies were performed at ages 0, 1, 3, 6, 9, and 12 months. The studies included the following: (1) serum levels of immunoglobulins and complement components; (2) the number of peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBL) and their subpopulations; and (3) proliferative responses by PBL against unrelated lymphocytes and some mitogens (pokeweed, phytohemagglutinin, and concanavalin A). All were normal when compared with studies of infants of nonimmunized mothers. These observations suggested that subcutaneous vaccination of women with their husband's lymphocytes did not result in any adverse effects on their infants' physical or immunologic development.     

Maternal early life maltreatment and psychopathology affect the next generation: Alterations in post‐awakening cortisol levels of primary school‐aged children

Early life maltreatment (ELM) has severe and lasting effects on the individual, which might also impact the next generation. On an endocrine level, the hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal axis has been suggested to play an important role in the interplay between ELM and the development of mental disorders. Several studies have revealed that maternal post‐awakening cortisol concentration, maternal sensitivity, maternal ELM and psychopathology are associated with children's cortisol levels. We investigated the post‐awakening cortisol concentrations in 6‐ to 11‐year‐old children (N = 53) whose mothers either had experienced ELM and had developed a lifetime mental disorder (N = 15 ELM and disorder group), had experienced ELM without developing a mental disorder (N = 12 ELM‐only group), or had neither experienced ELM nor developed a mental disorder (N = 26 HC‐group). Furthermore, we assessed maternal post‐awakening cortisol concentrations, maternal psychopathology, and sensitivity. Multilevel analysis revealed higher cortisol at awakening (S1) levels in children of mothers with ELM and disorder. Maternal cortisol at awakening (S1) also predicted the child's cortisol at awakening (S1), and no effect of maternal sensitivity could be found. The current results replicate an attunement of cortisol levels (S1) between mothers and children and suggest an association between the children's endocrine stress system and maternal factors such as ELM and psychopathology.     

Gestational diabetes mellitus (class A): A human teratogen?

Between January 1, 1982 and December 31, 1992 we evaluated 200 children of mothers with pregestational or gestational diabetes mellitus through the University of South Florida Genetics/Dysmorphology Clinics. They were a portion of the 22,100 families seen during that period. Pregnant women with diabetes mellitus were not part of this study. One hundred and fifty-two of the 200 were offspring of mothers with gestational diabetes (classes A₁ and A₂). Class B₁ was not encountered as a subclass of gestational diabetes in this series. Twenty-four of the 152 did not have anomalies. Forty-one of the 152 had another primary diagnosis to account for their malformations. Eighty-seven of the 152 had a constellation of anomalies or solitary structural defects as seen in diabetic embryopathy. Chromosomal, monogenic, and other teratogenic causes were excluded. The observed phenotypes matched those seen in offspring of mothers with diabetes mellitus classes B₂ to T. They also corroborated the animal studies, indicating that the embryopathy of gestational diabetes has a pathogenesis similar to that in classes B₂ to T, and recent epidemiological studies showing a statistically significant increase of anomalies as in diabetic embryopathy in the offspring of gestational diabetes mothers. As per established obstetric practice the testing for gestational diabetes was after gestation 16 weeks. Thus, it was impossible to prove that the anomalies of the 87 propositi were due to gestational diabetes. However, the anomalies occurred during organogenesis as in the other diabetic classes, and inferred that gestational diabetes is a human teratogen. If so, common “idiopathic” malformations may be actually caused by undiagnosed maternal gestational diabetes. Am. J. Med. Genet. 83:402–408, 1999. © 1999 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Excretion of faecal viruses during the first year of life.

Four hundred faecal samples, collected at approximately weekly intervals during the first year of life from nine babies, were examined for the presence of viruses. Only nine (2.3%) samples contained a virus detectable by electron microscopy, and on all but one occasion only one type of virus was present and that in small numbers. Thirty (7.5%) of the specimens contained an enterovirus other than poliovirus, and these represetned 10 infections in four of the children. All three types of poliovirus, probably vaccine derived, were excreted by each child, and one or more types were present in 87 (21.8%) of the samples. There was no evidence to suggest that any of the illnesses suffered by the children had been caused by faecal viruses. Infection with these viruses was uncommon in the first three months of life but more than 40% of faecal samples obtained from children between the ages of 3 months and 1 year contained a faecal virus.     

Physical exercise during pregnancy minimizes PTZ-induced behavioral manifestations in prenatally stressed offspring

Stress during gestation has been shown to affect susceptibility and intensity of seizures in offspring. Environmental stimuli, such as maternal physical exercise, have shown to be beneficial for brain development. Although studies have demonstrated the deleterious influence of stress during pregnancy on seizure manifestation in offspring, very little is known on how to minimize these effects. This study verified whether physical exercise during the pregnancy associated with prenatal stress minimizes seizure susceptibility in offspring at the beginning of postnatal development. Pregnant rats and male pups were divided into the following groups: control, stress, stress/forced exercise, and stress/voluntary exercise. Behavioral manifestations were analyzed after injection of pentylenetetrazol (PTZ; 45 and 60 mg/kg) at ages P15 and P25. Increased behavioral manifestations and seizure severity was observed in the stress group compared with the control group at both ages. At the dose of 45 mg/kg, offspring of stressed mothers who performed both physical exercise models showed an increase in latency for the first manifestation and decrease in the seizures severity at both ages compared with the mothers groups who were only stressed. Prenatal restraint stress potentiated PTZ-induced seizure behavior, and both forced and voluntary exercise during gestation attenuates the negative effects of PTZ-induced offspring.     

The Basis of Rehabilitation and Treatment in the Acute Phase of Perinatal Cerebral Pathology

Full-term neonates with perinatal CNS damage and critical states at birth were investigated. The study was performed in three stages. At the first stage, 89 children underwent general assessment of status during the first three years of life; at the second, the structure and nature of CNS damage were studied in 69 children; at the third, the status of children during the first year of life was assessed using clinical and instrumented examinations, and some patients were treated with the peptide cortexin. Impairments to vital body functions due to severe posthypoxic states at birth were identified, these having significant effects on the patients’ quality of life at later ages, including the formation of neurological disability. These cases require appropriate correction of postcritical states during the neonatal period. Cortexin (5.0 mg i.m. for 10 days) was used as pathogenetic treatment. Use of Cortexin in children with moderate CNS damage led to virtually complete recovery by the end of the first year of life in 90% of patients.     

Cord blood levels of immunoglobulin G subclass antibodies to food and inhalant allergens in relation to maternal atopy and the development of atopic disease during the first 8 years of life

BACKGROUND: Factors that either protect from or enhance the development of atopic disease appear to be acting early in life. The gestational environment, including maternal immune responses, such as transplacentally transferred immunoglobulin (Ig) G antibodies to allergens, may be of importance in this respect, since allergen-specific immunity has been demonstrated to develop in utero. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the relation between cord blood IgG subclass antibodies to allergens, maternal atopy and development of atopic disease in the children. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The study group comprised a cohort of 96 children participating in a prospective study up to 8 years of age. Cord blood IgG subclass antibodies to ovalbumin, beta-lactoglobulin, Bet v 1 and cat dander were analysed by ELISA. RESULTS: The levels of all IgG subclass antibodies to ovalbumin and rBet v 1 were higher in newborn infants with an atopic mother, as compared with babies with nonatopic mothers. IgG1 antibody levels to cat and IgG4 antibody levels to beta-lactoglobulin and cat were also higher in atopic than in nonatopic mothers, whereas the other subclass antibody levels to those allergens were similar. High levels of cord blood IgG antibodies to cat and birch, but not to the food allergens, were associated with less atopic symptoms in the children during the first 8 years of life. Moreover, children who developed IgE antibodies to cat had lower levels of IgG antibodies to that allergen at birth. CONCLUSIONS: High levels of cord blood IgG subclass, especially IgG4, antibodies to food and inhalant allergens are associated with maternal atopy. High levels of IgG antibodies to inhalant, but not food, allergens are associated with less development of atopy in the children.     

Segregation analysis of a translocation (16;21)(p11;q22) in a large pedigree

A large family with an inherited reciprocal translocation (16;21) is described. An unbalanced karyotype due to adjacent-1 segregation was documented in 6 cases, whereas 25 children dying within the first year of life and 4 individuals dying at later ages probably had the same abnormality. Therefore minimal and maximal risk estimates were calculated to be 6.0% and 26.5% for female, respectively, 4.8% and 33.3% for male translocation heterozygotes. Among the karyotyped phenotypically normal offspring of male as well as female carriers the ratio of normal children to balanced carriers was not different from 1:1.