Considerations in Critical-Care and Anesthetic Management of Adult Patients Living With Fontan Circulation

The Fontan procedure is a staged palliation for various complex congenital cardiac lesions, including tricuspid atresia, pulmonary atresia, hypoplastic left heart syndrome, and double-inlet left ventricle, all of which involve a functional single-ventricle physiology. The complexity of the patients’ original anatomy combined with the anatomic and physiologic consequences of the Fontan circulation creates challenges. Teens and adults living with Fontan palliation will need perioperative support for noncardiac surgery, peripartum management for labour and delivery, interventions related to their structural heart disease, electrophysiology procedures, pacemakers, cardioversions, cardiac surgery, transplantation, and advanced mechanical support. This review focuses on the anesthetic and intensive care unit (ICU) management of these patients during their perioperative journey, with an emphasis on the continuity of preintervention planning, referral pathways, and postintervention ICU management. Requests for recipes and doses of medications are frequent; however, as in normal anesthesia and ICU practice, the method of anesthesia and dosing are dependent on the presenting medical/surgical conditions and the underlying anatomy and physiologic reserve. A patient with Fontan palliation in their early 20s attending school full-time with a cavopulmonary connection is likely to have more reserve than a patient in their late 40s with an atriopulmonary Fontan at home waiting for a heart transplant. Each case will require an anesthetic and critical care plan tailored to the situation. The critical care environment is a natural extension of the anesthetic management of a patient, with complex considerations for a patient with Fontan palliation.     

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy in patients with anesthetic problems

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy is a standard operation for benign gallbladder disease. As experience with laparoscopic cholecystectomy has increased, the procedure has become possible in patients with anesthetic problems. Patients with ankylosing spondylitis or severe kyphosis represent a challenging group to anesthesiologists and laparoscopic surgeons since these diseases are associated with difficult intubation, restrictive ventilatory defects, and cardiac problems. The relatively new approach of awake fiberoptic intubation is considered to be the safest option for patients with anticipated airway difficulties. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy is usually performed under general anesthesia but considerable difficulties in anesthetic management are encountered during laparoscopic surgery; for example, hemodynamic instability may develop in patients with cardiopulmonary dysfunction due to pneumoperitoneum and position changes during the operation. Nonetheless, regional anesthesia can be considered as a valid option for patients with gallbladder disease who are poor candidates for general anesthesia due to cardiopulmonary problems. We report three cases of laparoscopic cholecystectomy successfully performed in patients with anesthetic problems that included cardiopulmonary disease, severe kyphosis, and ankylosing spondylitis.     

Perioperative hemodynamic study of patients undergoing abdominal surgery using pulse dye densitometry

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Pulse dye densitometry (PDD) using indocyanine-green (ICG) is a newly developed technique for monitoring cardiac output (CO), cardiac index (CI), circulating blood volume (BV) and ICG elimination rate (K-ICG). We measured hemodynamic changes during the perioperative period in patients undergoing digestive surgery to analyze relationships between hemodynamic changes and surgical procedures, blood loss, water balance and SIRS. METHODOLOGY: Eighty-seven patients who underwent gastrectomy (n=46) and colectomy (n=41) without postoperative complications were enrolled in this study. The corresponding data from 15 patients who underwent laparoscopic cholecystectomy were used as controls. CO, CI, BV and K-ICG were measured by PDD before operation, on the first postoperative day (POD 1), POD 3, POD 7 and POD 14. RESULTS: In all patients, CO and CI increased significantly until POD 3 compared with preoperative levels. BV on POD 1 decreased significantly compared to the preoperative level. K-ICG increased significantly until POD 14. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy resulted in less surgical stress than gastrectomy or colectomy as measured by hemodynamic changes. There were minimal differences in hemodynamics between the gastrectomy and colectomy groups. There were significant negative correlations between intraoperative blood loss and the [POD 1: preoperative values] ratios for CO, CI, BV or K-ICG. There was no correlation between changes in water balance from operation to POD 1 and [POD 1: preoperative value] BV ratio. CONCLUSIONS: An increase in CO and decrease in BV were observed at the early operative stage, especially in patients with systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS). Interestingly, hepatic artery flow volume (K-ICG) remained high until POD 14. It is important to minimize intraoperative blood loss, since it markedly affects postoperative hemodynamics.     

Percutaneous catheter aspiration thrombectomy for the occluded stents of pulmonary artery in children with single ventricle physiology after fontan surgery

Successful surgical palliation with the Fontan procedure allows survival into adulthood for many patients born with single ventricle (SV) physiology, but the limited studies reported incidence of perioperative and long‐term complications including thromboembolic events. Chronic pulmonary embolism is a common complication in patients with Fontan circulation, and may have serious consequences. Percutaneous intervention may be less invasive option for such a high‐risk population than surgery is. We described two patients who developed complete thrombosis of the left pulmonary artery following catheter placement of a stent in this vessel shortly after Fontan surgery. Percutaneous catheter aspiration thrombectomy was successfully performed. Percutaneous catheter aspiration thrombectomy may be considered as a viable option in acute thrombus in children with SV physiology after Fontan surgery. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Perioperative treatment of patients with obstructive sleep apnea

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Obstructive sleep apnea is a common disorder. Despite reports of its role as a risk factor for postoperative morbidity and mortality, only a few investigators have examined the optimal treatment of patients during this vulnerable period. Recognition of obstructive sleep apnea during conscious sedation or in the perioperative period is important to prevent the occurrence of adverse outcomes. This review discusses the influence of sedative, anesthetic, and analgesic agents and other factors during the perioperative period on patients with obstructive sleep apnea. The aim of this article is to emphasize the importance of recognizing and appropriately treating surgical patients with obstructive sleep apnea. RECENT FINDINGS: Sedative, analgesic, and anesthetic agents used perioperatively play a major role in the development of sleep-disordered breathing during the postoperative period. Postoperative apneic episodes frequently occur even after surgery remote from the upper airway. Sleep apnea predisposes patients to a greater than normal risk for postsurgical complications. Adequate screening of patients preoperatively and initiation of continuous positive airway pressure therapy perioperatively could prevent serious complications, including hypoxemia, arrhythmias, myocardial infarction, and respiratory arrest. SUMMARY: Obstructive sleep apnea places a significant proportion of surgical patients at increased risk of perioperative complications. Obstructive sleep apnea can be induced, unmasked, or exacerbated by the effects of sedative, analgesic, and anesthetic agents regardless of the site of surgery. The role of sleep apnea as a risk factor for development of postoperative complications needs greater emphasis. Increased awareness of the risk posed by an obstructed upper airway and appropriate management are important to optimize the perioperative care of patients with obstructive sleep apnea.     

Minimally invasive surgery for superior mesenteric artery syndrome: A case report

Superior mesenteric artery (SMA) syndrome is defined as a compression of the third portion of the duodenum by the abdominal aorta and the overlying SMA. SMA syndrome associated with anorexia nervosa has been recognized, mainly among young female patients. The excessive weight loss owing to the eating disorder sometimes results in a reduced aorto-mesenteric angle and causes duodenal obstruction. Conservative treatment, including psychiatric and nutritional management, is recommended as initial therapy. If conservative treatment fails, surgery is often required. Currently, traditional open bypass surgery has been replaced by laparoscopic duodenojejunostomy as a curative surgical approach. However, single incision laparoscopic approach is rarely performed. A 20-year-old female patient with a diagnosis of anorexia nervosa and SMA syndrome was prepared for surgery after failed conservative management. As the patient had body image concerns, a single incision laparoscopic duodenojejunostomy was performed to achieve minimal scarring. As a result, good perioperative outcomes and cosmetic results were achieved. We show the first case of a young patient with SMA syndrome who was successfully treated by single incision laparoscopic duodenojejunostomy. This minimal invasive surgery would be beneficial for other patients with SMA syndrome associated with anorexia nervosa, in terms of both surgical and cosmetic outcomes.     

Resuscitation and Perioperative Management of the High‐risk Single Ventricle Patient: First‐stage Palliation

Infants born with hypoplastic left heart syndrome or other lesions resulting in a single right ventricle face the highest risk of mortality among all forms of congenital heart disease. Before the modern era of surgical palliation, these conditions were universally lethal; recent refinements in surgical technique and perioperative management have translated into dramatic improvements in survival. Nonetheless, these infants remain at a high risk of morbidity and mortality, and an appreciation of single ventricle physiology is fundamental to the care of these high‐risk patients. Herein, resuscitation and perioperative management of infants with hypoplastic left heart syndrome are reviewed. Basic neonatal and pediatric life support recommendations are summarized, and perioperative first‐stage clinical management strategies are reviewed.     

探讨全身麻醉和硬膜外麻醉对糖尿病患者围手术期血糖的影响

目的探讨全身麻醉和硬膜外麻醉对糖尿病患者围手术期血糖的影响。方法选择2018年1月—2019年12月该院收治的80例糖尿病患者作为研究对象,并按其入院日的奇偶数,分为观察组(40例,采用硬膜外麻醉方式)和对照组(40例,采用全身麻醉方式),对比两组患者术后的血糖水平、基本手术情况、血流动力学指标。结果与对照组相比,观察组术后血糖水平更低,基本手术情况更优,血流动力学指标更低,差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。结论对糖尿病围手术期患者实施硬膜外麻醉方式,能帮助糖尿病患者更好地控制围手术期的血液变化,提升患者的治疗效果。     

Anesthetic management of patients undergoing extra-anatomic renal bypass surgery for renovascular hypertension

Renal artery disease is the most common cause for surgically curable form of hypertension. In a small subset of patients with severe aortic disease where the aorta is not suitable for endovascular technique and to provide an arterial inflow, an extra-anatomic renal bypass surgery (EARBS) is an option. Anesthetic management of such procedures has not been described so far in the literature. We retrospectively analyzed the anesthetic techniques used in all patients who underwent EARBS between February 1998 and June 2008 at this institute. We also further analyzed data concerning blood pressure (BP) control and renal function response following surgery as outcome variable measures. A total of 11 patients underwent EARBS during this period. Five received oral clonidine with premedication. During laryngoscopy, esmolol was used in 4 patients, while lignocaine was used in remaining 7 patients. Of 11 patients, 7 showed significant hemodynamic response to laryngoscopy and intubation; among these, one had oral clonidine with premedicant, and 6 received lignocaine just before laryngoscopy. Intravenous vasodilators were used to maintain target BP within 20% of baseline during perioperative period. All patients received renal protective measures. During follow-up, 10% were considered cured, 70% had improved BP response, while 20% failed to show improvement in BP response. Renal functions improved in 54.5%, remain unchanged in 36.5%, and worsened in 9% of patients. Use of clonidine during premedication and esmolol before laryngoscopy were beneficial in attenuating hemodynamic response to laryngoscopy, while use of vasodilators to maintain target BP within 20% of baseline, and routine use of renal protective measures appear to be promising in patients undergoing EARBS.     

Bidirectional cavopulmonary anastomosis in congenital heart disease. Functional and clinical outcome.

The bidirectional cavopulmonary anastomosis is a surgical procedure suitable for patients with cyanotic congenital heart disease and univentricular physiology. This operation is able to increase the effective pulmonary blood flow without any additional load on the cardiac work and without any further distortion on the pulmonary artery branches. The cavopulmonary anastomosis can represent the first stage for patients destined for Fontan repair or a definitive palliative operation in high risk Fontan candidates. In order to test the hypothesis of a definitive palliation by cavopulmonary anastomosis in this kind of patients, we evaluated the hemodynamic data before and after this surgical approach and compared these data with their clinical and functional outcome. We evaluated 74 patients submitted to bidirectional cavopulmonary anastomosis by either hemodynamic or functional evaluation. End-diastolic and end-systolic ventricular volumes were significantly reduced by bidirectional cavopulmonary anastomosis (p less than 0.0005). Despite these data and a normal ambulatory ECG, spirometry and echocardiographic analysis, the stress test showed discouraging results. In fact, mean work time and peak heart rate were significantly different from normal values showing an impaired functional capacity of these children. In conclusion we think that bidirectional cavopulmonary anastomosis can not be considered an adequate definitive palliation but it represents a very good stage to preserve the pulmonary arteries and to prepare the systemic ventricle towards the Fontan repair.     

Perioperative Care of the Infant With Single Ventricle Physiology

Among patients with congenital heart defects, neonates with single ventricle disease continue to challenge clinicians despite significant improvements in survival over the past 30 years. The cardiac anatomical variants associated with the term “single ventricle” are characterized by severe hypoplasia (or absence) of either ventricle, typically in association with obstruction or atresia of either the pulmonary or systemic outflow tracts. Physiologically, the single ventricle receives both pulmonary and systemic venous blood and ejects simultaneously into the pulmonary and systemic circulations, a pattern commonly referred to as single ventricle physiology. Medical and surgical management strategies, though palliative, are aimed at achieving the optimal balance of systemic blood flow and pulmonary blood flow to maximize oxygen delivery. Patients with single ventricle physiology have a greater risk of dying than those with biventricular circulations and are generally committed to multiple palliative interventions throughout childhood with considerable risk. Surgical intervention in the newborn period involves Norwood Stage I palliation, placement of a systemic-to-pulmonary artery shunt, or banding of the pulmonary artery, depending on the status of the outflow tracts. Heart transplantation is offered as the initial approach in some centers. The management strategy and the actual delivery of care from the time of birth (or at time of diagnosis) through the postoperative period is crucial to optimize the short-term and long-term outcomes. Whereas survival following initial palliation in experienced centers is as high as 95%, emphasis is now appropriately shifting toward the control of in-hospital morbidity and optimizing long-term functional outcome. Centers are continually striving to gather and apply new knowledge related to the underlying anatomical and physiologic problems while seeking to improve decision making and care of the patient with single ventricle physiology.     

Perioperative fluid management in major hepatic resection: an integrative review

BACKGROUND: Fluid intervention and vasoactive phar-macological support during hepatic resection depend on the preference of the attending clinician, institutional resources, and practice culture. Evidence-based recommendations to guide perioperative fluid management are currently limited. Therefore, we provide a contemporary clinical integrative overview of the fundamental principles underpinning fluid intervention and hemodynamic optimization for adult pa-tients undergoing major hepatic resection. DATA SOURCES: A literature review was performed of MED-LINE, EMBASE and the Cochrane Central Registry of Con-trolled Trials using the terms "surgery", "anesthesia", "starch","hydroxyethyl starch derivatives", "albumin", "gelatin", "liver re-section", "hepatic resection", "fluids", "fluid therapy", "crystalloid","colloid", "saline", "plasma-Lyte", "plasmalyte", "hartmann's", "ac-etate", and "lactate". Search results for MEDLINE and EMBASE were additionally limited to studies on human populations that included adult age groups and publications in English. RESULTS: A total of 113 articles were included after appro-priate inclusion criteria screening. Perioperative fluid man-agement as it relates to various anesthetic and surgical tech-niques is discussed. CONCLUSIONS: Clinicians should have a fundamental un-derstanding of the surgical phases of the resection, hemody-namic goals, and anesthesia challenges in attempts to individ-ualize therapy to the patient's underlying pathophysiological condition. Therefore, an ideal approach for perioperative flu-id therapy is always individualized. Planning and designing large-scale clinical trials are imperative to define the optimal type and amount of fluid for patients undergoing major he-patic resection. Further clinical trials evaluating different in-traoperative goal-directed strategies are also eagerly awaited.     

Effect of laparoscopic abdominal surgery on splanchnic circulation: Historical developments

With the developments in medical technology and increased surgical experience, advanced laparoscopic surgical procedures are performed successfully. Laparoscopic abdominal surgery is one of the best examples of advanced laparoscopic surgery (LS). Today, laparoscopic abdominal surgery in general surgery clinics is the basis of all abdominal surgical interventions. Laparoscopic abdominal surgery is associated with systemic and splanchnic hemodynamic alterations. Inadequate splanchnic perfusion in critically ill patients is associated with increased morbidity and mortality. The underlying pathophysiological mechanisms are still not well understood. With experience and with an increase in the number and diversity of the resulting data, the pathophysiology of laparoscopic abdominal surgery is now better understood. The normal physiology and pathophysiology of local and systemic effects of laparoscopic abdominal surgery is extremely important for safe and effective LS. Future research projects should focus on the interplay between the physiological regulatory mechanisms in the splanchnic circulation (SC), organs, and diseases. In this review, we discuss the effects of laparoscopic abdominal surgery on the SC.     

高龄合并呼吸及循环系统疾病后腹腔镜手术的围手术期处理

目的探讨高龄合并呼吸及循环系统疾病患者后腹腔镜手术的围手术期处理。方法对65岁以上合并呼吸及循环系统疾病的46例患者行后腹腔镜手术围手术期资料进行研究。结果 46例均安全度过围手术期,无一例死亡,术后出现肺部及心血管并发症12例,经积极治疗后痊愈出院。结论高龄合并呼吸及循环系统疾病的患者做好充分的术前准备,加强术前、术中及术后围手术期监测及处理,施行后腹腔镜手术是安全的。     

Ten-year experience with surgical treatment of adults with congenital cardiac disease

The number of adults with congenital cardiac disease continues to increase, and adult patients are now more numerous than paediatric patients. We sought to identify risk factors for perioperative death and report our results with surgical management of adult patients with congenital cardiac disease. We retrospectively analysed in-hospital data for 244 consecutive adult patients who underwent surgical treatment of congenital cardiac disease in our centre between January, 1998 and December, 2007. The mean patient age was 27.2 plus or minus 11.9 years, 29% were in functional class III or IV, and 25% were cyanosed. Of the patients, half were operated on for the first time. A total of 61% of patients underwent curative operations, 36% a reoperation after curative treatment, and 3% a palliative operation. Overall mortality was 4.9%. Predictive factors for hospital death were functional class, cyanosis, non-sinus rhythm, a history of only palliative previous operation(s), and an indication for palliative treatment. Functional class, cyanosis, type of initial congenital cardiac disease (single ventricle and double-outlet right ventricle), and only palliative previous operation were risk factors for prolonged intensive care stay (more than 48 hours). The surgical management of adult patients with congenital cardiac disease has improved during recent decades. These generally young patients, with a complex pathology, today present a low post-operative morbidity and mortality. Patients having undergone palliative surgery and reaching adulthood without curative treatment present with an increased risk of morbidity and mortality. Univentricular hearts and double-outlet right ventricles were associated with the highest morbidity.     

The role of the intra-aortic balloon in cardiac anesthesia and surgery.

The use of the intra-aortic balloon pump (IABP) in cardiac surgical patients has become accepted treatment. The purposes of this study were (1) to determine the frequency of use of the balloon, (2) to re-evaluate the indications for the IABP, and (3) to assess the hemodynamic effects of the balloon during surgery.In the past 24 months, the IABP was used in 63 of 1,738 (3.62%) adult cardiac surgical patients. Eight patients required the IABP prior to surgery due to complicated acute myocardial infarctions. In 13 patients, the IABP was used in the operating room before bypass for complicated infarctions or severe left ventricular dysfunction. It was not considered necessary before bypass in patients with left main coronary artery disease, moderately depressed left ventricular function, or unstable angina. In addition, 42 patients required the IABP to discontinue cardiopulmonary bypass.Detailed hemodynamic measurements were made in 11 patients. The IABP decreased systolic blood pressure, left and right ventricular filling pressures, and peripheral resistance, while it increased diastolic and mean arterial pressures, stroke work, cardiac output, and the endocardial viability ratio. The intra-aortic balloon was shown to be life-saving in certain patients. However, it should only be used selectively for specific indications. Careful surgical and anesthetic management with good monitoring can be used in many patients instead of the balloon.     

Machine learning methods for perioperative anesthetic management in cardiac surgery patients: a scoping review

BackgroundMachine learning (ML) is developing fast with promising prospects within medicine and already has several applications in perioperative care. We conducted a scoping review to examine the extent and potential limitations of ML implementation in perioperative anesthetic care, specifically in cardiac surgery patients.MethodsWe mapped the current literature by searching three databases: MEDLINE (Ovid), EMBASE (Ovid), and Cochrane Library. Articles were eligible if they reported on perioperative ML use in the field of cardiac surgery with relevance to anesthetic practices. Data on the applicability of ML and comparability to conventional statistical methods were extracted.ResultsForty-six articles on ML relevant to the work of the anesthesiologist in cardiac surgery were identified. Three main categories emerged: (I) event and risk prediction, (II) hemodynamic monitoring, and (III) automation of echocardiography. Prediction models based on ML tend to behave similarly to conventional statistical methods. Using dynamic hemodynamic or ultrasound data in ML models, however, shifts the potential to promising results.ConclusionsML in cardiac surgery is increasingly used in perioperative anesthetic management. The majority is used for prediction purposes similar to conventional clinical scores. Remarkable ML model performances are achieved when using real-time dynamic parameters. However, beneficial clinical outcomes of ML integration have yet to be determined. Nonetheless, the first steps introducing ML in perioperative anesthetic care for cardiac surgery have been taken.     

Single port laparoscopic cholecystectomy: a new evolving technique

Although multiple groups have reported initial success with single port laparoscopy, no consensus exists concerning the technical aspect of this surgery. In this report, we describe in detail our technique to perform single port laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Twelve cases of single port laparoscopic cholecystectomy for gallbladder stones were performed in our surgical unit. There was only one conversion during the first operation of the series to standard laparoscopy, and never to open operation. No intraoperative adverse events or major perioperative complications were reported. All the patients have been discharged within 48 hours, with uneventful postoperative course, nearly painless, without any discomfort and no visible scar. Single port laparoscopic surgery is a promising option for the treatment of gallbladder stones providing that technical and oncological surgical principles are respected.     

心脏瓣膜手术患者围手术期用血情况分析

目的:分析心脏瓣膜手术患者围手术期临床用血情况和影响因素,为心外科手术合理备血、用血提供参考依据。方法:回顾性调查2017年,在本院行心脏瓣膜手术患者的临床病历资料。分析成分血的使用情况以及对影响输血的相关因素,如:性别、年龄、血型、BMI、体外循环时间、手术方式、住院天数等进行统计分析。结果:通过对心脏瓣膜手术患者在围手术期的输血情况分析,结果显示:不同血型、BMI、体外循环时间与平均输血量比较,差异无统计学意义(P>0.05);平均输血量与性别、年龄有显著相关性(P<0.05),女性患者输注量多于男性患者,60岁以上老人平均输血量大。结论:性别、年龄与平均输血量有显著相关性,我们应掌握心脏瓣膜病围手术期输血的特点和规律,为临床手术合理备血、围手术期合理用血提供理论依据,做到合理有效用血,在节约血液资源的同时,可以缩短住院周期,节省医疗费用。     

Preoperative Management in Patients with Single‐ventricle Physiology

Objective. Advancements in the preoperative management of patients with single‐ventricle physiology continue to evolve. Previous reports have questioned the benefit of using inhaled nitrogen in single‐ventricle patients, suggesting that this therapeutic modality may not provide adequate systemic cardiac output. The objective of this study was to review our institutional experience managing preoperative patients with single‐ventricle physiology using a combination of afterload reduction and inhaled hypoxemic therapy. Design, Setting, and Patients. This is a retrospective review of 49 consecutive single‐ventricle patients admitted preoperatively between July 2004 and January 2009, to the cardiac intensive care unit at Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh who underwent single‐ventricle palliation, and treated preoperatively with milrinone and inhaled nitrogen. Therapeutic interventions and indirect indicators of cardiac output were collected on day of admission (time 0) and compared with those collected on the morning of surgery (time 1); data included clinical assessment, hemodynamic measurements, and laboratory values. Results. When comparing time 0 to time 1, there was a statistically significant decrease in lactate (from 2.2 to 1.8 mEq/L [P < 0.001]) and an increase in pH (from 7.36 to 7.41 [P < 0.001]), serum bicarbonate (from 24.16 to 27.55 mmol/L [P < 0.001]) and arterial PaO₂ (from 38.10 to 41.82 mm Hg [P= 0.027]). Preoperatively, there were no deaths, and only two patients had an evidence of multiorgan dysfunction on day of surgery (time 1). Conclusion. Our results suggest that a combination of afterload reduction and hypoxemic therapy was able to maintain an appropriate distribution of the cardiac output in the majority of preoperative patients with single‐ventricle physiology. An adequate balance of systemic and pulmonary blood flow was successfully achieved with an increase in arterial Pa0₂ values.