防己诺林碱诱导人乳腺癌细胞MDA-MB-231凋亡的作用机制

目的 探讨防己诺林碱(FAN)对三阴性乳腺癌(TNBC)的抗肿瘤机制.方法 体外细胞培养人乳腺癌细胞MDA-MB-231,Alamar-Blue法检测FAN对人乳腺癌细胞MDA-MB-231的半抑制浓度(IC50);6孔板检测细胞迁移情况;细胞流式技术检测细胞凋亡情况;Western Blot检测磷脂酰肌醇-3羟基激酶(PI3K)、蛋白激酶B(AKT)、哺乳类动物雷帕霉素靶蛋白(mTOR)及磷酸化PI3K、AKT、mTOR蛋白表达.结果 FAN可抑制人乳腺癌细胞MDA-MB-231的活力(IC50为6.25μmol/L),抑制人乳腺癌细胞MDA-MB-231的迁移能力,且随着FAN浓度升高,抑制作用明显.FAN可以诱导人乳腺癌细胞MDA-MB-231凋亡,且随着FAN浓度升高,细胞凋亡率增高,同时FAN还可以下调PI3K、AKT、mTOR及磷酸化PI3K、AKT、mTOR蛋白的表达,随药物浓度的升高,其蛋白表达降低.结论 FAN可通过下调TNBC MDA-MB-231细胞凋亡PI3K/AKT/mTOR信号通路,抑制TNBC细胞的增殖、迁移,诱导细胞凋亡,可能具有抗肿瘤作用.     

Resveratrol enhances the anti-tumor activity of the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin in multiple breast cancer cell lines mainly by suppressing rapamycin-induced AKT signaling

The anti-tumor activity of rapamycin is compromised by the feedback-loop-relevant hyperactive PI3K and ERK-MAPK pathway signaling. In breast cancer cells treated with rapamycin, we observed a moderate increase of AKT phosphorylation (P-AKT) in a rapamycin resistant cell line, MDA-MB-231, as well as a slight increase of P-AKT in a rapamycin sensitive cell line, MCF-7. We found that resveratrol, a natural phytoalexin, suppressed the phosphorylation and activation of the PI3K/AKT pathway in all the three breast cancer cell lines that we tested. It also had a weak inhibitory effect on the activation of the mTOR/p70S6K pathway in two cell lines expressing wildtype PTEN, MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231. The combined use of resveratrol and rapamycin resulted in modest additive inhibitory effects on the growth of breast cancer cells, mainly through suppressing rapamycin-induced AKT activation. We, therefore, reveal a novel combination whereby resveratrol potentiates the growth inhibitory effect of rapamycin, with the added benefit of preventing eventual resistance to rapamycin, likely by suppressing AKT signaling. We also present data herein that PTEN is an important contributor to resveratrol's growth suppressive effects and its potentiation of rapamycin in this therapeutic scenario, as resveratrol's suppression of rapamycin-mediated induction of P-AKT is both PTEN-dependent and -independent. Thus, the resveratrol-rapamycin combination may have therapeutic value in treating breast cancer and perhaps other processes where mTOR is activated.     

Proliferation,migration and invasion of triple negative breast cancer cells are suppressed by berbamine via the PI3K/Akt/MDM2/p53 and PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathways

Breast cancer is the second most common cause of cancer-associated mortality among women worldwide, and triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most aggressive subtype of breast cancer. Berbamine (BBM) is a traditional Chinese medicine used for the treatment of leukopenia without any obvious side effects. Recent reports found that BBM has anti-cancer effects. The present study aimed to investigate the effects of BBM on TNBC cell lines and the underlying molecular mechanism. MDA-MB-231 cells and MCF-7 cells, two TNBC cell lines, were treated with various concentrations of BBM. A series of bioassays including MTT, colony formation, EdU staining, apoptosis, trypan blue dye, wound healing, transwell, ELISA and western blotting assays were performed. The results showed that BBM significantly inhibited cell proliferation of MDA-MB-231 cells (P<0.05; IC₅₀=22.72 µM) and MCF-7 cells (P<0.05; IC₅₀=20.92 µM). BBM (20 µM) decreased the apoptosis ratio (percentage of absorbance compared with the control group) by 28.4±3.3% (P<0.05) in MDA-MB-231 cells, and 62.4±24.6% (P<0.05) in MCF-7 cells. In addition, BBM inhibited cell migration and invasion of TNBC cells. Furthermore, the expression levels of PI3K, phosphorylated-Akt/Akt, COX-2, LOX, MDM2 and mTOR were downregulated by BBM, and the expression of p53 was upregulated by BBM. These results indicated that BBM may suppress the development of TNBC via regulation of the PI3K/Akt/MDM2/p53 and PI3K/Akt/mTOR signal pathways. Therefore, BBM might be used as a drug candidate for the treatment of TNBC in the future.     

Twist promotes reprogramming of glucose metabolism in breast cancer cells through PI3K/AKT and p53 signaling pathways

Twist, a key regulator of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), plays an important role in the development of a tumorigenic phenotype. Energy metabolism reprogramming (EMR), a newly discovered hallmark of cancer cells, potentiates cancer cell proliferation, survival, and invasion. Currently little is known about the effects of Twist on tumor EMR. In this study, we found that glucose consumption and lactate production were increased and mitochondrial mass was decreased in Twist-overexpressing MCF10A mammary epithelial cells compared with vector-expressing MCF10A cells. Moreover, these Twist-induced phenotypic changes were augmented by hypoxia. The expression of some glucose metabolism-related genes such as PKM2, LDHA, and G6PD was also found to be upregulated. Mechanistically, activated β1-integrin/FAK/PI3K/AKT/mTOR and suppressed P53 signaling were responsible for the observed EMR. Knockdown of Twist reversed the effects of Twist on EMR in Twist-overexpressing MCF10A cells and Twist-positive breast cancer cells. Furthermore, blockage of the β1-integrin/FAK/PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway by siRNA or specific chemical inhibitors, or rescue of p53 activation can partially reverse the switch of glucose metabolism and inhibit the migration of Twist-overexpressing MCF10A cells and Twist-positive breast cancer cells. Thus, our data suggest that Twist promotes reprogramming of glucose metabolism in MCF10A-Twist cells and Twist-positive breast cancer cells via activation of the β1-integrin/FAK/PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway and inhibition of the p53 pathway. Our study provides new insight into EMR.     

Enhanced anti-cancer effect of a phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase inhibitor and doxorubicin on human breast epithelial cell lines with different p53 and oestrogen receptor status

New efforts are being focused on signalling pathways as targets for cancer therapy. This particular study was designed to investigate whether blockade of the phosphatidylinositol 3OH-kinase (PI3K) pathway (a survival/anti-apoptosis pathway, overexpressed in various tumours) could sensitise human breast cancer cells to the effect of chemotherapeutics. Doxorubicin (Dox) and LY294002 (LY, a PI3K inhibitor) were used individually or in combination on MDA-MB-231 (p53 mutant, ER-), T47D (p53 mutant, ER+), and MCF-7 (p53 wildtype, ER+) human breast cancer cell lines, and on 184A1, a nonmalignant human breast epithelial cell line (p53 wildtype, ER-). Each drug showed time- and dose-dependent growth inhibition of cell proliferation on all 4 cell lines. The combination of Dox+LY resulted in enhanced cell growth inhibition in MDA-MB-231 and T47D cells, and additive inhibition in MCF-7 and 184A1 cells. Cell cycle analysis showed that Dox+LY enhanced the arrest of MDA-MB-231 and T47D cells in G2 with the appearance of a sub-G1 peak indicating apoptosis/necrosis, a notion supported by enhanced depolarisation of mitochondrial membrane potential in these cell types. The combination also caused a greater additive increase in Cyclin B1. Thus, the synergistic effect of the combination on cell proliferation in some, but not all, breast cancer cells may be through enhanced induction of both G2 arrest and apoptosis, in which p53 may play a role. Substantially lower doses of doxorubicin could be used with low doses of inhibitors of the PI3K pathway, without compromising the anti-cancer effect, but also lowering detrimental side-effects of doxorubicin. This study supports the notion that survival signalling pathways offer special targets for chemotherapy in cancer.     

Regulation of p53 and cell proliferation by resveratrol and its derivatives in breast cancer cells: an in silico and biochemical approach targeting integrin αvβ3

Resveratrol is a grape polyphenol with cancer preventative activities in tissue culture and animal model studies. Potential of resveratrol as a broad-based chemopreventive agent have been questioned by its limited bioavailability. The bioefficacy of resveratrol was compared with its derivatives, triacetyl-resveratrol (trans-3,5,4'-triacetylstilbene) and trimethoxy-resveratrol (trans-3,5,4'-trimethoxystilbene) in both estrogen receptor-α (ERα)-positive MCF-7 and ERα-negative MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. Binding to integrin αvβ3 and control of cell proliferation and p53 were chosen as targets for comparative analysis using an in silico and biochemical approach. Resveratrol and triacetyl-resveratrol interacted avidly and specifically with integrin αvβ3 through binding at the site targeted by the high affinity cyclic Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) peptide. In contrast, binding of trimethoxy-resveratrol to this site was substantially less robust. Moreover, the different stilbenes also elicited diverse cellular and signaling responses in MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells, as evidenced by analysis of colony formation, cell proliferation, cell cycle phase transition, the extent of phosphorylation of p53 at Ser15 and p53-inducible proteins, p21 and p53R2, respectively. Further, stilbene-elicited signaling cascade leading to p53 activation was examined in MCF-7 cells and results showed that resveratrol and triacetyl-resveratrol induced both ERK and p38 phosphorylation, whereas only marginal changes in state of phosphorylation in these two kinases were observed in trimethoxy-resveratrol-treated cells. Taken together, these results support that resveratrol and triacetyl-resveratrol regulate proliferation and gene expression in breast cancer cells by utilizing largely similar signaling molecules and pathways and cellular events, which appear quite distinct from those targeted by trimethoxy-resveratrol.     

Comparison of the effects of the PI3K/mTOR inhibitors NVP-BEZ235 and GSK2126458 on tamoxifen-resistant breast cancer cells

Background

Treatment with anti-estrogens or aromatase inhibitors is commonly used for patients with estrogen receptor-positive (ER⁺) breast cancers; however resistant disease develops almost inevitably, requiring a choice of secondary therapy. One possibility is to use inhibitors of the PI3K/mTOR pathway and several candidate drugs are in development. We examined the in vitro effects of two inhibitors of the PI3K/mTOR pathway on resistant MCF-7 cells.

Results

The derived sub-lines showed increased resistance to tamoxifen but none exhibited concomitantly increased sensitivity to the PI3K inhibitors. NVP-BEZ235 and GSK2126458 acted mainly by induction of cell cycle arrest, particularly in G₁-phase, rather than by induction of apoptosis. The lines varied considerably in their utilization of the AKT, p70S6K and ERK pathways. NVP-BEZ235 and GSK2126458 inhibited AKT signaling but NVP-BEZ235 showed greater effects than GSK2126458 on p70S6K and rpS6 signaling with effects resembling those of rapamycin.

Methods

We cultured MCF-7 cells for prolonged periods either in the presence of the anti-estrogen tamoxifen (three sub-lines) or in estrogen free medium (two sub-lines) to mimic the effects of clinical treatment. We then analyzed the effects of two dual PI3K/mTOR phosphoinositide-3-kinase inhibitors, NVP-BEZ235 and GSK2126458, on the growth and signaling pathways of these MCF-7 sub-lines. The functional status of the PI3K, mTOR and ERK pathways was analyzed by measuring phosphorylation of AKT, p70S6K, rpS6 and ERK.

Conclusion

Increased resistance to tamoxifen in these MCF-7 sub-lines is not associated with hypersensitivity to PI3K inhibitors. While both drugs inhibited AKT signaling, NVP-BEZ235 resembled rapamycin in inhibiting the mTOR pathway.Key words: breast cancer, PI3K, mTOR, BEZ235, GSK2126458, estrogen receptor, MCF-7     

Comparative analysis of xanafide cytotoxicity in breast cancer cell lines

Xanafide, a DNA-intercalating agent and topoisomerase II inhibitor, has previously demonstrated comparable cytotoxicity to the parent drug amonafide (NSC 308847). The current study was conducted to investigate further the anti-proliferative effects of xanafide in human breast cancer cell lines, in vitro and in vivo. The in vitro activity of xanafide against MCF-7, MDA-MB-231, SKBR-3 and T47D cell lines was compared to that of paclitaxel, docetaxel, gemcitabine, vinorelbine and doxorubicin. In MCF-7, xanafide demonstrated comparable total growth inhibition (TGI) concentrations to the taxanes and lower TGI values than gemcitabine, vinorelbine and doxorubicin. MCF-7 (oestrogen receptor (ER)+/p53 wild-type) was the most sensitive cell line to xanafide. MDA-MB-231 and SKBR-3 exhibited similar sensitivity to xanafide. T47 D (ER+/p53 mutated), showed no response to this agent. The in vivo activity of xanafide was further compared to that of docetaxel in MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cell lines using the hollow fibre assay. Xanafide was slightly more potent than docetaxel, at its highest dose in MCF-7 cell line, whereas docetaxel was more effective than xanafide in MDA-MB-231 cell line. Our results show that there is no relationship between sensitivity of these cell lines to xanafide and cellular levels of both isoforms of topoisomerase II and suggest that ER and p53 status and their crosstalk may predict the responsiveness or resistance of breast cancer patients to xanafide.     

大荨麻提取物对乳腺癌细胞恶性生物学行为的影响及其可能的机制

目的:探讨大荨麻提取物对乳腺癌细胞增殖、凋亡和细胞周期的影响,并初步探讨其可能的作用机制.方法:用不同质量浓度的大荨麻提取物(0、1、2、4、8、16、32、64 mg/ml)处理乳腺癌细胞MCF-7和MDA-MB-23124 h,MTT法检测细胞增殖活力,选择中位抑制浓度附近的浓度(5和10 mg/ml)作为给药浓度...     

PI3K/mTOR inhibition can impair tumor invasion and metastasis in vivo despite a lack of antiproliferative action in vitro: implications for targeted therapy

Oncogenic PI3K/mTOR activation is frequently observed in human cancers and activates cell motility via p27 phosphorylations at T157 and T198. Here we explored the potential for a novel PI3K/mTOR inhibitor to inhibit tumor invasion and metastasis. An MDA-MB-231 breast cancer line variant, MDA-MB-231-1833, with high metastatic bone tropism, was treated with a novel catalytic PI3K/mTOR inhibitor, PF-04691502, at nM doses that did not impair proliferation. Effects on tumor cell motility, invasion, p27 phosphorylation, localization, and bone metastatic outgrowth were assayed. MDA-MB-231-1833 showed increased PI3K/mTOR activation, high levels of cytoplasmic p27pT157pT198 and increased cell motility and invasion in vitro versus parental. PF-04691502 treatment, at a dose that did not affect proliferation, reduced total and cytoplasmic p27, decreased p27pT157pT198 and restored cell motility and invasion to levels seen in MDA-MB-231. p27 knockdown in MDA-MB-231-1833 phenocopied PI3K/mTOR inhibition, whilst overexpression of the phosphomimetic mutant p27T157DT198D caused resistance to the anti-invasive effects of PF-04691502. Pre-treatment of MDA-MB-231-1833 with PF-04691502 significantly impaired metastatic tumor formation in vivo, despite lack of antiproliferative effects in culture and little effect on primary orthotopic tumor growth. A further link between cytoplasmic p27 and metastasis was provided by a study of primary human breast cancers which showed cytoplasmic p27 is associated with increased lymph nodal metastasis and reduced survival. Novel PI3K/mTOR inhibitors may oppose tumor metastasis independent of their growth inhibitory effects, providing a rationale for clinical investigation of PI3K/mTOR inhibitors in settings to prevent micrometastasis. In primary human breast cancers, cytoplasmic p27 is associated with worse outcomes and increased nodal metastasis, and may prove useful as a marker of both PI3K/mTOR activation and PI3K/mTOR inhibitor efficacy.     

mTOR信号通路介导产生XCL1可促进乳腺癌耐药细胞株的增殖

背景与目的：统计表明90%以上肿瘤患者的死亡与肿瘤耐药相关,而在乳腺癌中常见PI3K/Akt/mTOR信号通路的异常激活,以此通路为靶点的药物已成为乳腺癌治疗的研究热点。本研究主要分析C族趋化因子配基1(C chemokine ligand 1,XCL1)对乳腺癌耐药细胞增殖的影响及其产生机制。方法：建立吉西他滨耐药性人乳腺癌细胞系MDA-MB-231/Gem。采用CCK8检测MDA-MB-231和MDA-MB-231/Gem的增殖能力,RT-PCR、ELISA检测2株细胞株XCL1表达差异,Western blot检测mTOR的表达。结果：与MDA-MB-231相比,MDA-MB-231/Gem的增殖能力增强,XCL1在耐药细胞株表达增强。mTOR在耐药细胞株表达水平及磷酸化水平增强。在MDAMB-231中加入外源性XCL1 24 h后,细胞增殖能力增强。而在MDA-MB-231/Gem中加入抗XCL1抗体后,细胞增殖能力降低。mTOR抑制剂处理MDA-MB-231/Gem后,细胞增殖能力降低,XCL1产生减少。结论：趋化因子XCL1的分泌可促进乳腺癌耐药细胞的增殖并由mTOR信号通路介导产生。     

乳腺癌组织和细胞中低表达的LZTS2 通过PI3K/AKT信号通路抑制癌细胞增殖、迁移和EMT

[摘要] 目的：探讨亮氨酸拉链肿瘤抑制因子2（leucine zipper tumor suppressor 2, LZTS2）基因在人乳腺癌组织和细胞系中的表达及其对乳腺癌细胞增殖、迁移和EMT的影响及其作用机制。方法：收集2016 年1 月至2016 年12 月开封中心医院乳腺外科收治的50 例女性乳腺癌患者的癌及癌旁组织标本和乳腺癌细胞系MCF-7、MDA-MB-231、MDA-MB-468 以及正常人乳腺上皮细胞株HBL-100,用qPCR 和Western blotting 检测乳腺癌组织和细胞中LZTS2 mRNA和蛋白表达水平。构建pcDNA-LZTS2 真核表达载体并采用脂质体转染MCF-7 细胞,同时转染pcDNA3.1 作为阴性对照。用Western blotting 检测转染48~72 h 后MCF-7 细胞中LZTS2 蛋白表达水平;用MTT法、Transwell 小室法检测LZTS2 过表达对细胞增殖、迁移和侵袭的影响,同时用Western blotting检测细胞中EMT相关蛋白Cyclin D1、波形蛋白、神经钙黏蛋白、上皮钙黏蛋白以及PI3K/AKT信号通路中相关蛋白的表达。结果：人乳腺癌组织中LZTS2 mRNA和蛋白表达水平均明显低于癌旁组织（P<0.05 或P<0.01）;乳腺癌MCF-7、MDA-MB-231 和MDA-MB-468 细胞中LZTS2 mRNA和蛋白表达水平显著低于乳腺上皮细胞HBL-100（P<0.05 或P<0.01）。与空白对照组和pcDNA3.1组相比,pcDNA-LZTS2 组MCF-7 细胞中LZTS2 蛋白表达水平明显上调（P<0.01）,细胞增殖、迁移和侵袭能力显著受到抑制（P<0.05 或P<0.01）,同时过表达LZTS2 细胞中Cyclin D1、波形蛋白和神经钙黏蛋白表达水平均明显降低（P<0.05 或P<0.01）、上皮钙黏蛋白表达水平明显升高（均P<0.01）,显示LZTS2 过表达通过降低p-PI3K和p-AKT 表达而抑制PI3K/AKT信号通路。结论：LZTS2 在乳腺癌中低表达,过表达LZTS2 能够抑制乳腺癌细胞的增殖、迁移和侵袭能力,可能与抑制细胞EMT过程的PI3K/AKT信号通路有关。     

FAM83B-mediated activation of PI3K/AKT and MAPK signaling cooperates to promote epithelial cell transformation and resistance to targeted therapies

Therapies targeting MAPK and AKT/mTOR signaling are currently being evaluated in clinical trials for several tumor types. However, recent studies suggest that these therapies may be limited due to acquired cancer cell resistance and a small therapeutic index between normal and cancer cells. The identification of novel proteins that are involved in MAPK or AKT/mTOR signaling and differentially expressed between normal and cancer cells will provide mechanistically distinct therapeutic targets with the potential to inhibit these key cancer-associated pathways. We recently identified FAM83B as a novel, previously uncharacterized oncogene capable of hyperactivating MAPK and mTOR signaling and driving the tumorigenicity of immortalized human mammary epithelial cells (HMEC). We show here that elevated FAM83B expression also activates the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway and confers a decreased sensitivity to PI3K, AKT, and mTOR inhibitors. FAM83B co-precipitated with the p85α and p110α subunits of PI3K, as well as AKT, and increased p110α and AKT membrane localization, consistent with elevated PI3K/AKT signaling. In tumor-derived cells harboring elevated FAM83B expression, ablation of FAM83B decreased p110α and AKT membrane localization, suppressed AKT phosphorylation, and diminished proliferation, AIG, and tumorigenicity in vivo. We propose that the level of FAM83B expression may be an important factor to consider when combined therapies targeting MAPK and AKT/mTOR signaling are used. Moreover, the identification of FAM83B as a novel oncogene and its integral involvement in activating PI3K/AKT and MAPK provides a foundation for future therapies aimed at targeting FAM83B in order to suppress the growth of PI3K/AKT- and MAPK-driven cancers.     

Membrane metallo-endopeptidase mediates cellular senescence induced by oncogenic PIK3CAH1047R accompanied with pro-tumorigenic secretome

The hotspot mutation H1047R in the oncogenic PIK3CA gene is frequently detected in breast cancer and enhances the enzymatic activity of PI3K to activate AKT/mTOR signaling cascade. Aberrant elevated PI3K activation has been reported to promote the tumorigenesis of breast cancer, but the mechanisms underlying are still needed to be elucidated. Here, we found that continuously activating PIK3CA^H1047R conferred human mammary epithelial MCF-10A cells to cellular senescence upon serum-starvation. Similarly, breast cancer T47D and HCC1954 cells harboring H1047R mutation were senescent when cells were deprived of serum. PI3K/AKT/mTOR axis but not p53 or RB might be required for the induction of senescence. Notably, membrane metallo-endopeptidase (MME) was identified as a downstream effector of PI3K to mediate the induction of senescence, which might be associated with its glycosylation. Senescent cells elicited a distinct secretome dependent on PI3K and MME. Specifically, IL-6 promoted the proliferation of normal cells and CCL2 induced the M2-like polarization of macrophages, which might create an immunosuppressive microenvironment during the initiation and/or development of breast cancer. This study shed new light on the tumorigenesis induced by hyper-activated PI3K and might provide new clues for the prevention and therapy of breast cancer.     

Ghrelin促进乳腺癌细胞MDA-MB-231增殖的分子机制

目的:探讨生长激素释放肽（Ghrelin）促进乳腺癌细胞MDA-MB-231增殖的分子机制。方法:乳腺癌细胞MDA-MB-231经Ghrelin、Ghrelin受体（growth hormone secretagogue receptor,GHSR)抑制剂［D-Lys3］-GHRP-6或哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶蛋白(mammalian target of Rapamycin,mTOR)抑制剂雷帕霉素（Rapamycin）处理后,MTT或BrdU实验检测MDA-MB-231细胞的增殖能力;Western blot检测MDA-MB-231细胞GHSR表达及mTOR、p70S6K和S6磷酸化水平。结果:增殖实验结果表明Ghrelin增强MDA-MB-231细胞增殖能力;Western blot检测发现Ghrelin激活MDA-MB-231细胞mTOR、p70S6K和S6磷酸化,［D-Lys3］-GHRP-6或Rapamycin消除Ghrelin促进MDA-MB-231细胞增殖效应,同时抑制Ghrelin诱导的mTOR、p70S6K和S6磷酸化。结论:Ghrelin通过与GHSR结合激活MDA-MB-231细胞mTOR/p70S6K/S6信号途径促进MDA-MB-231细胞增殖。     

Involvement of p53 in insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3 regulation in the breast cancer cell response to DNA damage

Chemotherapy drugs that induce apoptosis by causing DNA double-strand breaks, upregulate the tumor suppressor p53. This study investigated the regulation of the growth-regulatory protein insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3 (IGFBP-3), a p53 target, by DNA-damaging agents in breast cancer cells. IGFBP-3 was upregulated 1.4- to 13-fold in response to doxorubicin and etoposide in MCF-10A, Hs578T, MCF-7 and T47D cells, which express low to moderate basal levels of IGFBP-3. In contrast, IGFBP-3 was strongly downregulated by these agents in cells with high basal levels of IGFBP-3 (MDA-MB-231, MDA-MB-436 and MDA-MB-468). In MDA-MB-468 cells containing the R273H p53 mutation, reported to display gain-of-function properties, chemotherapy-induced suppression of IGFBP-3 was not reversed by the p53 reactivating drug, PRIMA-1, or by p53 silencing, suggesting that the decrease in IGFBP-3 following DNA damage is not a mutant p53 gain-of-function response. SiRNA-mediated downregulation of endogenous IGFBP-3 modestly attenuated doxorubicin-induced apoptosis in MDA-MB-468 and Hs578T cells. IGFBP-3 downregulation in some breast cancer cell lines in response to DNA-damaging chemotherapy may have clinical implications because suppression of IGFBP-3 may modulate the apoptotic response. These observations provide further evidence that endogenous IGFBP-3 plays a role in breast cancer cell responsiveness to DNA damaging therapy.     

The in vitro and in vivo effects of human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells on the growth of breast cancer cells

The purpose of the study was to detect the effect and possible mechanism of human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells (hUCMSCs) on the in vitro and in vivo growth of stem cells isolated from primary human breast cancer cells and cell lines MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7. Primary human breast cancer cells and MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 cells were sorted in vitro using flow cytometry, and the ESA+, CD44+, CD24-/low cells were isolated as breast cancer stem cells (CSCs). The inhibitory effect of hUCMSCs on CSCs was examined using the Cell Counting Kit-8 cell proliferation and soft agar colony formation assay. In vivo tumor inhibition was studied using a severe combined immunodeficient xenograft mouse model transplanted with MDA-MB-231 breast CSCs. The expression of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) and AKT was examined in the xenograft tumors using immunohistochemistry. The number of colonies formed by breast CSCs co-cultured with hUCMSCs at the bottom of soft agar was significantly lower than those formed by the control group (P < 0.01). Compared with the control group, the CSCs co-cultured with hUCMSCs showed a higher number of cells in the G2-M phase (P < 0.05) and an increased number of apoptotic cells (P < 0.01). The mice in the medium- and high-concentration hUCMSC treatment groups exhibited clearly reduced tumor volume and tumor weight, compared with the control group (P < 0.01). Compared with the saline group, the xenograft tumor tissues from the mice treated with different concentrations of hUCMSCs showed significantly reduced levels of PI3K and AKT proteins (P < 0.001). In conclusion, hUCMSC significantly inhibited the growth of breast CSCs in vitro and in vivo. The underlying mechanism is likely related to cell cycle arrest, induction of tumor cell apoptosis, and suppressed activities of PI3K and AKT protein kinases.     

Alternative phospholipase D/mTOR survival signal in human breast cancer cells

Cancer cells generate survival signals to suppress default apoptotic programs that protect from cancer. Phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K) generates a survival signal that is frequently dysregulated in human cancers. Phospholipase D (PLD) has also been implicated in signals that promote survival. One of the targets of PLD signaling is mTOR (mammalian target of rapamycin), a critical regulator of cell cycle progression and cell growth. We report here that elevated PLD activity in the MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cell line generates an mTOR-dependent survival signal that is independent of PI3K. In contrast, MDA-MB-435S breast cancer cells, which have very low levels of PLD activity, are dependent on PI3K for survival signals. The data presented here identify an alternative survival signal that is dependent on PLD and mTOR and is active in a breast cancer cell line where the PI3K survival pathway is not active.     

Overcoming acquired resistance to letrozole by targeting the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway in breast cancer cell clones

Development of resistance to endocrine therapy is a clinical issue in estrogen receptor (ER)-positive breast cancer. Here we show that persistent activation of AKT/mTOR signaling is crucial to the acquisition of letrozole resistance in cell clones generated from MCF-7/AROM-1 aromatase-expressing breast cancer cells after prolonged letrozole exposure. ERα plays a marginal role in this context. As a proof of concept, the association between PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling and insensitivity to endocrine therapies was confirmed in breast cancer patients who developed early letrozole resistance in neoadjuvant setting. In addition our results suggest that, regardless of the mechanism mediating the activation of AKT/mTOR pathway, either RAD001 or NVP-BEZ235 treatment may represent a promising strategy to overcome acquired resistance to letrozole in breast cancers dependent on AKT/mTOR signaling.     

The PI3K/AKT/mTOR Signaling Pathway: Implications in the Treatment of Breast Cancer

Epidemiologic and experimental studies support a key role of the phosphatidyl inositol 3-kinase/AKT/mammalian target of rapamycin (PI3K/AKT/mTOR) pathway in the biology of human cancers. Alterations resulting in activation of PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling are perhaps the most frequent events observed in solid tumors, including breast cancer, and contribute to neoplastic transformation. The PI3K/mTOR pathway can be activated by overproduction of growth factors or chemokines, loss of phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) expression, or by mutations in growth factor receptors Ras, PTEN, or PI3K itself. Activation of this pathway contributes to cell cycle proliferation, growth, cell cycle entry, survival, cell motility, protein synthesis, and glucose metabolism, all important aspects of tumorigenesis. The most common genetic aberrations in breast cancer are activating somatic missense mutations in the gene encoding the p110a (PIK3CA) subunit of PI3K. The PTEN gene is often hypermethylated or decreased in expression, through as yet unclear mechanisms, in breast cancer. Studies have shown that PI3K/PTEN/AKT pathway modulation is implicated in HER2/neu-tumorigenesis and in response to the HER2-targeting antibody trastuzumab. Components of the pathway are regulated by feed-back and cross-talk to other signaling cascades and appear to be implicated with drug resistance. Over the past few years, a number of components of this signaling cascade have been the subject of intense drug-discovery activities. Rapamycin analogs have already been shown to have antitumor efficacy in some tumor types. Newer-generation PI3K, AKT, and mTOR inhibitors have shown significant promise preclinically and are now in clinical trials. This article summarizes the progress made in the elucidation of the pathway, clinical implications in pathology of breast cancer, and reviews novel drugs targeting this pathway for cancer treatment, particularly inhibitors of PI3K, AKT, and mTOR, currently undergoing clinical trials. Potential combination strategies, safety concerns, and resistance mechanisms for this new generation of anticancer agents are also discussed.