Maternal Education Before Childbirth and Cardiovascular Diseases in Offspring During Early Adulthood: A Danish Population-Based Cohort Study

BackgroundCardiovascular disease (CVD) is increasing in youths, but there is limited knowledge about the etiology of early-onset CVD. We aimed to examine the association between maternal education before childbirth and CVD risk in offspring during early adulthood (20 to 40 years of age).MethodsThis population-based cohort study included 112,3600 subjects born in Denmark during 1977 to 1996.ResultsCompared with offspring born to mothers with high education, offspring born to mothers with low or medium education had 27% (hazard ratio, 1.27; 95% confidence interval, 1.23-1.30) or 12% (1.12; 1.09-1.15) increased overall risk of early-onset CVD, respectively. Increased risks were observed for most type-specific CVDs: in particular, for myocardial infarction (low [2.03; 1.55-2.65] or medium education [1.52; 1.16-1.99]), heart failure (low [1.59; 1.24-2.03] or medium education [1.51; 1.19-1.92]), and ischemic stroke (low [1.50; 1.28-1.76] or medium education [1.29; 1.10-1.51]). We observed high incidences of CVD in offspring of mothers with comorbid CVD (low [1.67; 1.51-1.86] or medium education [1.46; 1.29-1.64]), compared with those of mothers with high education and no history of CVD.ConclusionsLow maternal education before childbirth, especially with maternal comorbid CVD, is significantly associated with increased risk of overall CVD and most type-specific CVDs in offspring in early adulthood. The influence of maternal education on future offspring CVD should be taken into consideration in the assessment of CVD risks from early decades of life.     

Maternal Fish Consumption During Pregnancy and Risk of Early Childhood Asthma

Maternal fish consumption during pregnancy may affect children's asthma risk by modulating early-life immune development. Type of fish intake may be important because of differences in fatty acid content. To test this hypothesis, we conducted a nested case-control study, selecting subjects from the Children's Health Study, a population-based study of school-aged children in southern California. Cases had physician-diagnosed asthma and controls were asthma-free by age 5 years. Mothers or guardians provided information on fish consumption during pregnancy in telephone interviews. We computed odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) by using conditional logistic regression models that accounted for the sampling. In children born to mothers with a history of asthma, the OR of asthma was 0.20 (95% CI = 0.06-0.65) when mothers ate oily fish at least monthly during pregnancy compared with no consumption (p_trend = 0.006). Maternal oily fish consumption during pregnancy did not benefit children of non-asthmatic mothers. In contrast, fish stick (a source of trans-fats) consumption during pregnancy increased asthma risk in children (OR = 2.04; 95% CI = 1.18-3.51). Our results suggest that maternal oily fish intake during pregnancy may protect offspring from asthma; however, eating fish sticks during pregnancy may increase asthma risk in children.     

孕期炎症刺激对子代大鼠血脂水平的影响

目的研究孕期炎症刺激对子代大鼠血脂水平的影响。方法 8只SD孕鼠随机分为对照组和脂多糖刺激组,分别在孕第8、10、12天腹腔注射生理盐水或脂多糖(0.79 mg/kg)。子代出生1天及每周测体重;检测8周龄雄性仔鼠血清甘油三酯(TG)、总胆固醇(TC)、低密度脂蛋白(LDL)、高密度脂蛋白(HDL)、谷草转氨酶(AST)、谷丙转氨酶(ALT)水平;组织切片观察子代肝脏病理形态学变化;透射电镜观察肝、胸主动脉超微结构;免疫荧光检测仔鼠肝脏8-OHd G表达情况;TMRE染色检测线粒体膜电位。结果与对照组子代相比,脂多糖刺激组子代1天、1周龄体重下降(P0.01),而后体重显著增加(P0.01)。脂多糖刺激组子代8周龄外周血TG、TC、LDL及AST水平与对照组子代相比显著升高(P0.05或P0.01);肝脏病理改变明显,线粒体结构显著损伤,8-OHd G表达增多,肝脏线粒体膜电位较对照组子代明显降低(P0.01);胸主动脉表现出内皮脱落、平滑肌细胞迁移为特征的损伤。结论孕期炎症刺激导致子代线粒体损伤,可能与脂质代谢障碍并最终导致动脉粥样硬化发生相关。     

Tracking of Blood Pressure During Childhood: The Muscatine Study

Four thousand three hundred and thirteen children beginning at five to fourteen years of age have been examined on three to six occasions in Muscatine, Iowa on alternate years. To compare blood pressures throughout the period of observation each value was expressed as a percentile rank. For each subject the average percentile rank (level), the trend in rank and the variability over time were calculated. Values for height, weight, relative weight and triceps skinfold thickness measurements were expressed in the same fashion. The relationship between average rank of blood pressure and average rank of body size as well as between trend of blood pressure and trend of body size percentiles were significant (p<.05). These observations indicate the importance of relative rate of growth In the establishment of the rank order of blood pressure.     

Birth Weight and Childhood Blood Pressure

A large body of literature suggests an inverse relationship between birth weight and blood pressure in children, adolescents and adults. The most persistent findings have been observed in children with a history of low birth weight or intrauterine growth restriction, while a large number of studies carried out in populations with normally distributed birth weight have shown conflicting results. A recently reported strong direct association between high birth weight and blood pressure, and the significant positive effect of postnatal growth on blood pressure suggests that the fetal origins of adult disease hypothesis should be expanded to include the role of excessive fetal and postnatal growth. In this paper, we review recent studies on the relationship between birth weight and blood pressure in childhood, with a focus on confounding variables that may explain the conflicting results of published work in this field.     

Maternal Cytokine Production During Pregnancy and the Development of Childhood Wheezing and Allergic Disease in Offspring Three Years of Age

Allergic diseases are multifactorial; they develop from complex interactions between genes and the environment. The immunological bias toward atopy and asthma might be established during in utero development of the fetal immune system. We prospectively investigated the association between maternal cytokine changes during pregnancy and the development of childhood wheezing and atopy at three years of age. Blood samples from 90 pregnant women were assayed for TNF-α, TGF-β, IFN-γ, IL-4, IL-6, and IL-2 at 18 weeks of gestation and at 6 weeks after delivery. Telephone interviews were performed and a questionnaire administered to assess wheezing and allergic disease in the children. The serum total IgE and specific IgE to eggs, milk and dust mites were measured. Maternal IFN-γ, TNF-α and TGF-β levels significantly decreased during pregnancy compared to the levels after delivery. However, the IL-4 levels did not change. Maternal TNF-α and IFN-γ levels were decreased both before and after delivery in children with reported wheezing. Individual maternal IL-4 levels, before delivery, were higher than after delivery in the children that developed wheezing. There were no significant differences in maternal cytokine levels between children with and without asthma. In children with atopy, the maternal IFN-γ /IL-4 ratio, during the first trimester, had a tendency to decrease compared to the children without atopy, whereas the maternal IL-2 levels at 6 weeks after delivery were increased. A first pregnancy showed higher concentrations of IL-4 before and after delivery than did women with multiple pregnancies. Maternal cytokine levels begin to change toward a Th2 immunity starting in the first trimester. A stronger Th2 immune response during the first trimester of pregnancy is associated with childhood wheezing and atopy at three years of age, and a first pregnancy.     

Maternal Physical Activity Is Associated With Improved Blood Pressure Regulation During Late Pregnancy

Background

Cardiovagal baroreflex gain (cBRG) reflects an individual's ability to buffer swings in blood pressure. It is not well understood how this mechanism is influenced by physical activity in pregnancy. Because pregnant women tend to engage in low levels of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and high levels of sedentary behaviour, we sought to determine the influence of MVPA and sedentary behaviour on cBRG and mean arterial pressure (MAP) in pregnancy.

The Bergen Blood Pressure Study: Sodium Intake and Ambulatory Blood Pressure in Offspring of Hypertensive and Normotensive Families

Sodium intake, estimated by the 24-h urine sodium excretion, was assessed in 39 offspring of hypertensive families and 37 offspring of normotensive families. The family history of hypertension or normotension was defined according to parental BP data from two surveys conducted 27 years apart. Urine sodium excretion was similar in offspring of hypertensive and normotensive families, averaging 136 and 137 mmol/24 h, respectively. Monitored by non-invasive methodology in the urine sampling period, the average 24-h ambulatory blood pressure (BP) was approximately 10/10 mmHg higher in offspring of hypertensive than normotensive families. The clinically and statistically significant differences in BP between groups could not be explained by differences in sodium intake. After adjustment for confounding variables, the BP was not associated with the sodium excretion in the material as a whole or in either offspring group.     

Maternal/Fetal Determinants of Insulin Resistance in Women During Pregnancy and in Offspring Over Life

Insulin resistance is a component of the pathophysiology of both type 2 diabetes and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), but is also characteristic of normal glycemic physiology during pregnancy. In recent years, many studies have tried to understand determinants of insulin resistance in normal pregnancy and GDM, revealing that the placenta is capable of secreting many cytokines and hormones, classically considered as adipokines. More specifically, it appears that leptin and TNFα could be implicated in gestational insulin resistance and GDM pathophysiology. In addition, the maternal metabolic milieu was also identified as a key determinant of later insulin resistance in offspring, a phenomenon often described as ‘fetal programming’. This article reviews the established risk factors and the more novel suspected biomarkers involved in maternal insulin resistance during pregnancy as well as the maternal and early life determinants of insulin resistance in offspring later in their life. We are also highlighting recent reports of the potential mechanisms involved in ‘programming’ of insulin resistance such as epigenetic modulation.     

Consequences of In Utero Zika Virus Exposure and Adverse Pregnancy and Early Childhood Outcomes: A Prospective Cohort Study

We aimed to describe adverse pregnancy outcomes among women who had symptomatic, RT-PCR-confirmed ZIKV infection and early childhood outcomes among their infants. We enrolled pregnant women with symptomatic, RT-PCR-confirmed ZIKV infection in a prospective cohort study, and their infants in a prospective pediatric cohort study. We defined adverse pregnancy and early childhood outcomes based on selected neurologic, ophthalmologic, auditory, musculoskeletal, and anthropometric abnormalities. We used RT-PCR and serologic tests to determine the ZIKV infection status of the child. Between 10 March and 24 November 2016, we enrolled 546 pregnant women with RT-PCR-confirmed ZIKV infection. The overall risk of adverse pregnancy and early childhood outcomes possibly related to in utero ZIKV exposure was 15.7% (95% CI: 12.8–19.0), distributed as follows: 3.6% (95% CI: 2.3–5.6) severe sequelae or fatality; 2.7% (95% CI: 1.6–4.5) major abnormalities; 9.4% (95% CI:7.1–12.2) mild abnormalities. The risk of severe sequelae or fatality was higher when ZIKV infection occurred during the first trimester (7.0%), compared to the second (2.7%) or third trimester (1.4%) (p = 0.02). Among the infants for whom ZIKV infection status could be determined, the vertical transmission rate was 3.0% (5/167) (95% CI: 1.1–7.2). Among pregnant women with symptomatic, RT-PCR-confirmed ZIKV infection, severe or major pregnancy or early childhood outcomes were present in 6.3% of fetuses and infants. Severe outcomes occurred more frequently in fetuses and infants whose mothers had been infected in the first trimester.     

Effect of Hazardous Alcohol Use During Pregnancy on Growth Outcomes at Birth: Findings from a South African Cohort Study

Background

Cohort studies have noted associations between hazardous alcohol use during pregnancy and infant growth outcomes, but many have not controlled for potential psychosocial confounders. To assess the unique contribution of hazardous alcohol use, we examined its effect on infant growth outcomes while controlling for maternal psychosocial stressors and hazardous tobacco and drug use in a cohort of 986 pregnant South African women enrolled into the Drakenstein Child Health Study between 2012 and 2015.

Methods

Data on psychosocial stressors and maternal risk behaviors were collected between 28 and 32 weeks of gestation. Participants were categorized as hazardous alcohol users if they obtained moderate or high scores (>10) on the Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test at this assessment or retrospectively reported drinking at least 2 drinks weekly during any trimester of pregnancy. Infant growth outcomes were recorded at delivery. Multivariable regression models examined correlates of hazardous alcohol use and associations between hazardous alcohol use and birth outcomes.

Results

Overall, 13% of mothers reported hazardous alcohol use. Recent exposure to intimate partner violence (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) = 2.08; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.37, 3.18) and hazardous tobacco use (aOR = 5.03; 95% CI: 2.97, 8.52) were significant correlates of hazardous alcohol use. After controlling for potential psychosocial confounders, hazardous alcohol use remained associated with lower infant weight‐for‐age (B = ?0.35, 95% CI: ?0.56, ?0.14), height‐for‐age (B = ?0.46, 95% CI: ?0.76, ?0.17), and head‐circumference‐for‐age z‐scores (B = ?0.43, 95% CI: ?0.69, ?0.17).

Conclusions

Interventions to reduce hazardous alcohol use among pregnant women in South Africa are needed to prevent alcohol‐related infant growth restrictions. As these growth deficits may lead to neurodevelopmental consequences, it is critical to identify alcohol‐related growth restrictions at birth and link exposed infants to early interventions for neurodevelopment.

     

Lack of Effects of Maternal Salt Intake on Blood Pressure of Offspring in Dahl Salt-Sensitive Rats

Inbred Dahl salt sensitive (S/JR) and salt resistant (R/JR) rats were used to look for effects of varying maternal intake of salt (NaC1) on the blood pressure of the offspring. Neither the blood pressure at weaning nor the blood pressure response to postweaning high salt diet of S/JR or R/JR rat pups was affected whether their mothers had eaten high salt (8% NaCl) or low salt (0.15% NaCl) diet during gestation. Similarly, maternal salt intake during lactation had no effect on the blood pressure of the offspring at weaning or the blood pressure response to salt feeding after weaning. Na⁺ was higher and K⁺ was lower in milk of S/JR compared to R/JR mothers during the last half of the lactation period, but dietary salt intake did not influence milk Na⁺ or K⁺. Previous cross-fostering experiments show that this strain difference in milk electrolytes does not influence S pups blood pressure. It is concluded that neither maternal salt intake nor the existing changes in milk Na⁺ have any influence on the blood pressure of Dahl salt sensitive rat pups in contrast to the marked effects of salt intake in these rats after weaning.     

父母高血压史对子女高血压患病率及血压水平的影响

目的：探讨高血压家族史对人群血压的影响。方法：利用1991年全国血压抽样调查的940323人的资料，分析父母高血压史与血压水平和高血压患病率的关系。并分析不同民族人群的遗传背景与血压水平的关系，利用多因素Logistic回归调整年龄，体重指数，吸烟饮酒状况及文化程度，探讨高血压家族史与高血压患病之间的关系。结果：高血压家族史阳性率均为19．3％，有高血压家族史者比家族史者的血压水平和高血压患病率明显升高（P＜0．01），而父母双亲均有高血压者的血压水平和高血压患病率又比父母一方有高血压者明显升高（P＜0．01），父母双亲均有高血压史者的高血压病率为无家族史者的2倍。父亲有高血压与母亲高血压均值及高血压患病率没有显著差异。多因素Logistic回归显示，有高血压家族史者患高血压病的危险是无高血压家族史者的1．79倍。结论：遗传因素在中国人群的高血压发病中起重要作用。     

父母高血压史对子女高血压患病率及血压水平的影响

目的探讨高血压家族史对人群血压的影响.方法利用1991年全国血压抽样调查的940323人的资料,分析父母高血压史与血压水平和高血压患病率的关系,并分析不同民族人群的遗传背景与血压水平的关系.利用多因素Logistic回归调整年龄、体重指数、吸烟饮酒状况及文化程度后,探讨高血压家族史与高血压患病之间的关系.结果高血压家族史阳性率均为19.3% .有高血压家族史者比无家族史者的血压水平和高血压患病率明显升高(P<0.01),而父母双亲均有高血压者的血压水平和高血压患病率又比父母一方有高血压者明显升高(P<0.01),父母双亲均有高血压史者的高血压患病率为无家族史者的2倍.父亲有高血压者与母亲有高血压者的血压均值及高血压患病率没有显著差异.多因素Logistic回归显示,有高血压家族史者患高血压病的危险是无高血压家族史者的1.79倍.结论遗传因素在中国人群的高血压发病中起重要作用.     

Blood Pressure Variation Throughout Pregnancy According to Early Gestational BMI: A Brazilian Cohort

Background

The maternal cardiovascular system undergoes progressive adaptations throughout pregnancy, causing blood pressure fluctuations. However, no consensus has been established on its normal variation in uncomplicated pregnancies.

Objective

To describe the variation in systolic blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) levels during pregnancy according to early pregnancy body mass index (BMI).

Methods

SBP and DBP were measured during the first, second and third trimesters and at 30-45 days postpartum in a prospective cohort of 189 women aged 20-40 years. BMI (kg/m²) was measured up to the 13^th gestational week and classified as normal-weight (<25.0) or excessive weight (≥25.0). Longitudinal linear mixed-effects models were used for statistical analysis.

Results

A decrease in SBP and DBP was observed from the first to the second trimester (β_SBP=-0.394; 95%CI: -0.600- -0.188 and β_DBP=-0.617; 95%CI: -0.780- -0.454), as was an increase in SBP and DBP up to 30-45 postpartum days (β_SBP=0.010; 95%CI: 0.006-0.014 and β_DBP=0.015; 95%CI: 0.012-0.018). Women with excessive weight at early pregnancy showed higher mean SBP in all gestational trimesters, and higher mean DBP in the first and third trimesters. Excessive early pregnancy BMI was positively associated with prospective changes in SBP (β_SBP=7.055; 95%CI: 4.499-9.610) and in DBP (β_DBP=3.201; 95%CI: 1.136-5.266).

Conclusion

SBP and DBP decreased from the first to the second trimester and then increased up to the postpartum period. Women with excessive early pregnancy BMI had higher SBP and DBP than their normal-weight counterparts throughout pregnancy, but not in the postpartum period.