Prenatal diagnosis of genetic disorders

Genetic disease can occur due to imbalance of whole chromosomes, smaller chromosome microdeletions or duplications, or at the single-gene level where even a single base change can cause significant disease. This review focuses on the methods available to achieve genetic diagnosis of a fetus in pregnancy, both in the context of a family history of a known disease-causing mutation and where there is clinical suspicion of a genetic disorder based on ultrasound findings. Until recently, genetic testing of a fetus invariably required invasive procedures to sample fetal tissue, with associated risk of miscarriage. However, non-invasive methods of achieving prenatal diagnosis by sampling fetal DNA present in maternal blood have undergone considerable development. Current applications and future utility of these techniques are discussed.     

基于母体血浆单体型分析无创产前检测脊髓性肌肉萎缩症的研究

目的:探索无创产前检测(NIPT)脊髓性肌肉萎缩症(SMA)在临床应用的可行性。方法:招募生育过SMA先证者且再次妊娠的24个家系,其家系中夫妻双方及先证者致病突变经多重连接探针扩增技术(MLPA)测定。采集家系外周血及孕11周以后的孕妇血浆,通过目标序列捕获及高通量测序技术,首先对夫妻双方及先证者外周血DNA样品进行目标区域捕获测序,获得与致病位点连锁的亲本单体型信息,再结合血浆测序数据中提供的单核苷酸多态性位点的分析结果,构建隐马尔可夫模型,推断胎儿单体型,从而得到胎儿的基因型。同时利用有创产前诊断MLPA检测验证其准确性。本次研究主要针对SMN1基因第7、8号外显子的检测。结果:24个家系通过NIPT检测检出患胎5例,携带者7例,余12例正常;MLPA检测结果为5例患胎,8例携带者,11例正常。患胎均为SMN1基因第7、8号外显子纯合缺失。NIPT与MLPA检测结果一致率为95.83%(23/24),两种方法诊断结果差异无统计学意义(P=0.317)。结论:基于母体血浆目标区域捕获测序、单体型分析NIPT胎儿SMA风险的方法准确、安全,应用于有先证者遗传信息的SMA NIPT有一定可行性。     

双胎妊娠非整倍体异常的产前筛查与产前诊断

双胎妊娠非整倍体产前筛查较单胎复杂。应在早孕期确定孕周、绒毛膜性并测量颈项透明层厚度。早孕期联合筛查优于中孕期血清学筛查,但检出率明显低于单胎妊娠。无创产前检查用于双胎筛查仍需更多研究数据。双胎之一胚胎停育将影响早孕期筛查的准确性。产前诊断时区分标记双胎是需要注意的重要问题。     

Prenatal diagnosis of single-gene disorders: case studies

In volume 13 issue 3 of this journal, various methods for diagnosing single-gene disorders in the antenatal period were reviewed. The general principles remain the same and have not been discussed again in detail here. Instead, four cases are described that illustrate the points made in this original article, with reference to background information where necessary. Molecular biology is playing an increasingly important role in the prenatal diagnosis of single-gene disorders. In the absence of a family history, or a previously affected sibling, it is usually ultrasound, however, that first raises the possibility of one of these diagnoses in the prenatal period. Clinical investigations, histopathology and molecular testing following birth, or termination of pregnancy, usually combine to provide a precise diagnosis, after which molecular testing in a future pregnancy often becomes possible if the recurrence risks are high.     

游离胎儿DNA高通量基因测序技术在产前筛查的临床应用

目的:探讨应用孕妇血浆中游离胎儿DNA高通量基因测序技术在无创性产前诊断中的可行性.方法:采用化学发光法对22977例孕中期妇女进行唐氏综合征筛查,对筛查结果为高风险的1173例孕妇采用高通量基因测序技术检测母体血浆胎儿游离DNA,分析胎儿染色体拷贝数,检测结果为高危的孕妇再做羊膜腔穿刺及脐血穿刺术进行胎儿染色体核型分析.结果:1173例孕妇中游离胎儿DNA高通量基因测序技术检测出11例染色体高风险胎儿,羊水/脐血核型分析证实其中10例为染色体异常,分别为7例21-三体和2例18-三体,1例13-三体.游离胎儿DNA高通量基因测序技术的敏感度为100.00％(10/10),特异度为99.91％(1162/1163),假阴性率为0(0/1173),假阳性率为0.09％(1/1173).结论:母体血浆游离DNA高通量基因测序技术可用于胎儿染色体拷贝数异常的检测,有准确性高、假阴性和假阳性率低、无创取样的优点,但由于费用较高,可结合血清学唐氏综合征筛查在有条件的地区进行推广应用.     

Prenatal screening for fetal aneuploidies with cell-free DNA in the general pregnancy population: a cost-effectiveness analysis

Objective: To estimate the cost-effectiveness of fetal aneuploidy screening in the general pregnancy population using non-invasive prenatal testing (NIPT) as compared to first trimester combined screening (FTS) with serum markers and NT ultrasound.

Methods: Using a decision-analytic model, we estimated the number of fetal T21, T18, and T13 cases identified prenatally, the number of invasive procedures performed, corresponding normal fetus losses, and costs of screening using FTS or NIPT with cell-free DNA (cfDNA). Modeling was based on a 4 million pregnant women cohort, which represents annual births in the U.S.

Results: For the general pregnancy population, NIPT identified 15% more trisomy cases, reduced invasive procedures by 88%, and reduced iatrogenic fetal loss by 94% as compared to FTS. The cost per trisomy case identified with FTS was $497?909. At a NIPT unit, cost of $453 and below, there were cost savings as compared to FTS. Accounting for additional trisomy cases identified by NIPT, a NIPT unit cost of $665 provided the same per trisomy cost as that of FTS.

Conclusions: NIPT in the general pregnancy population leads to more prenatal identification of fetal trisomy cases as compared to FTS and is more economical at a NIPT unit cost of $453.     

Non-invasive prenatal testing using massively parallel sequencing of maternal plasma DNA: from molecular karyotyping to fetal whole-genome sequencing

The discovery of cell-free fetal DNA in maternal plasma in 1997 has stimulated a rapid development of non-invasive prenatal testing. The recent advent of massively parallel sequencing has allowed the analysis of circulating cell-free fetal DNA to be performed with unprecedented sensitivity and precision. Fetal trisomies 21, 18 and 13 are now robustly detectable in maternal plasma and such analyses have been available clinically since 2011. Fetal genome-wide molecular karyotyping and whole-genome sequencing have now been demonstrated in a number of proof-of-concept studies. Genome-wide and targeted sequencing of maternal plasma has been shown to allow the non-invasive prenatal testing of β-thalassaemia and can potentially be generalized to other monogenic diseases. It is thus expected that plasma DNA-based non-invasive prenatal testing will play an increasingly important role in future obstetric care. It is thus timely and important that the ethical, social and legal issues of non-invasive prenatal testing be discussed actively by all parties involved in prenatal care.The discovery of cell-free fetal DNA in maternal plasma in 1997 has stimulated a rapid development of non-invasive prenatal testing. The recent advent of high-throughput sequencing technologies has allowed the analysis of circulating cell-free fetal DNA to be performed with unprecedented sensitivity and precision. A number of fetal chromosomal disorders are now robustly detectable in maternal plasma and such analyses have been available clinically since 2011. Moving beyond selected fetal chromosomal disorders, fetal single-gene disorders and even fetal whole-genome analysis have now been demonstrated in a number of proof-of-concept studies. It is thus expected that DNA-based non-invasive prenatal testing will play an increasingly important role in future obstetrics care. It is thus timely and important that the ethical, social and legal issues of non-invasive prenatal testing be actively discussed by all parties involved in prenatal care.     

Prenatal screening for common aneuploides

Down syndrome screening has been available within clinical practice for over 50 years within which time significant innovation and exciting new advances have improved the accuracy, safety, and choice for women who are considering antenatal screening for Down syndrome. The UK National Screening Committee is responsible for setting the national standards regarding screening and it has steadily and consistently directed and facilitated an increase in the detection rate whilst minimising the screen positive rate. This has reduced the number of false positive results and consequently the number of invasive diagnostic procedures and their related miscarriages. Non-invasive pre-natal testing (NIPT) using cell free DNA is a rapidly evolving field and it will soon be incorporated into the existing NHS antenatal screening programme for aneuploidy. It will be offered to women who receive a ‘high risk’ result following current screening methods (combined test or quadruple test), and will further reduce the number of invasive tests performed, whilst maintaining current detection rates.     

Recent advances in non-invasive prenatal DNA diagnosis through analysis of maternal blood

Prenatal diagnosis of aneuploidy and single-gene disorders is usually performed by collecting fetal samples through amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling. However, these invasive procedures are associated with some degree of risk to the fetus and/or mother. Therefore, in recent years, considerable effort has been made to develop non-invasive prenatal diagnostic procedures. One potential non-invasive approach involves analysis of cell-free fetal DNA in maternal plasma or serum. Another approach utilizes fetal cells within the maternal circulation as a source of fetal DNA. At the present time, fetal gender and fetal RhD blood type within RhD-negative pregnant women can be reliably determined through analysis of maternal plasma. Furthermore, genetic alterations can be diagnosed in the maternal plasma when the mother does not have the alterations. However, the diagnosis of maternally inherited genetic disease and aneuploidy is limited using this approach. Non-invasive prenatal diagnosis through examination of intact fetal cells circulating within maternal blood can be used to diagnose a full range of genetic disorders. Since only a limited number of fetal cells circulate within maternal blood, procedures to enrich the cells and enable single cell analysis with high sensitivity are required. Recently, separation methods, including a lectin-based method and autoimage analyzing, have been developed, which have improved the sensitivity of genetic analysis. This progress has supported the possibility of non-invasive prenatal diagnosis of genetic disorders. In the present article, we discuss recent advances in the field of non-invasive prenatal diagnosis.     

无创产前检测在高龄孕妇中检测胎儿非整倍体的临床应用

目的:探讨高通量测序(HTS)技术在高龄孕妇胎儿染色体非整倍体筛查中的临床应用。方法:2 090例单胎高龄孕妇行无创产前检测(NIPT),结果异常的孕妇再行羊膜腔穿刺,羊水细胞培养后染色体G320显带核型分析。结果:2 090例样本中,高通量基因测序提示22例胎儿染色体非整倍体高风险,19例孕妇自愿接受羊水产前诊断,其中16例羊水G带核型结果与NIPT测序结果一致,包括12例T21,2例T18,2例性染色体异常,阳性预测值为84.2%(16/19)。结论:对于拒绝接受介入性产前诊断的高龄孕妇,临床可推荐无创的高通量基因测序产前检测技术,进一步降低出生缺陷儿的发生率。     

基因组时代产前诊断面临的机遇和挑战

        自20世纪70年代开始,染色体核型分析技术作为诊断胎儿染色体异常的金标准已使用多年,但该技术存在分辨率较低（5~10Mb）、培养周期长、检测通量低及有培养失败风险等局限性。随后,靶向诊断技术（FISH、QF-PCR、MLPA）的出现,大大缩短了检测时间,与染色体核型技术联合应用,可早期诊断常见的胎儿染色体异常。此外,Sanger测序作为基因变异检测的金标准,可用于明确致病的单基因疾病的产前诊断。然而,以上技术均无法实现在全基因组范围内进行快速、高分辨率地诊断胎儿致病性变异。 浏览更多请关注微信公众号及当期杂志。     

Prenatal case of RIT1 mutation associated Noonan syndrome by whole exome sequencing (WES) and review of the literature

ObjectiveWe aimed to identify the genetic cause of one hydrops fetalis with Noonan syndrome (NS) manifestations including increased nuchal translucency (INT) and ascites through prenatal whole exome sequencing (WES).Case reportThe case is a gestational age (GA) 18 fetus of two healthy parents with a normal child. We proceeded the genomic DNA from both fetus amniotic cells and parents to WES and identified a RIT1 mutation (c.268A>G) as the pathogenic cause of the hydrops fetalis by automatic prioritization algorithm after array-comparative genomic hybridization results showing negative.ConclusionMutations in RIT1 have been reported as the causes for different fetus structural abnormities in the recent years. This case contributes to the summary delineations of the prenatal NS phenotypes related to RIT1 mutation. In addition, the fast WES application, in this case, has demonstrated its advantage in prenatal disorder diagnosis when conventional karyotyping or chromosomal microarray testing result is negative.     

Ethical and legal aspects of noninvasive prenatal genetic diagnosis

The new technology that will allow genetic testing of a fetus within the first trimester of pregnancy by isolating cell-free fetal DNA (cffDNA) in the mother’s blood raises a range of ethical and legal issues. Considered noninvasive, this test is safe and reliable, and may avoid alternative genetic testing by amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling, which risks causing spontaneous abortion. Ethical and legal issues of cffDNA testing will become more acute if testing expands to fetal whole-genome sequencing. Critical issues include the state of the science or diagnostic art; the appropriateness of offering the test; the implications of denying the test when it is available and appropriate; disclosure and counseling following test results; and management of patients’ choices on acquiring test results. A challenge will be providing patients with appropriate counseling based on up-to-date genetic knowledge, and accommodating informed patients’ legal choices.     

Prenatal screening and diagnosis in multiple pregnancies

Multiple pregnancies account for 1.5% of pregnancies in the UK and both aneuploidies and structural anomalies occur more frequently in twins, compared to singletons. Comprehensive, individualised counselling is key in these challenging situations, requiring clinicians to communicate their knowledge of prenatal screening effectively.Prenatal screening and diagnosis is not straightforward in multiple pregnancies with variable performance of screening tests, choices to be made on diagnostic techniques and sampling, limited robust data on procedure-related risks and potentially complex decision-making in light of results. In this article we will address these issues and provide an up-to-date evidence summary derived from national guidance and published literature.     

产前筛查结果与不良妊娠结局关系分析

目的:探讨血清学唐氏筛查和孕妇外周血胎儿游离DNA产前筛查(NIPT)结果与不良妊娠结局的关系.方法:选取2017年2月1日至2019年6月1日在上海市第一人民医院产前诊断中心接受中孕期血清学唐氏筛查(2483例)和NIPT(2312例)的孕妇,随访妊娠结局.比较血清学唐氏筛查高风险、中风险、低风险孕妇发生不良妊娠结局...