小脑延髓裂入路在第四脑室和脑干背侧肿瘤手术中的临床应用

目的探讨枕下后正中-经小脑延髓裂入路显微手术切除第四脑室和脑干背侧肿瘤的手术方法、手术技巧,及其疗效。方法回顾性分析2006年1月~2015年12月采用小脑延髓裂入路手术治疗的106例第四脑室和脑干背侧肿瘤患者的临床资料。其中83例患者采用双侧小脑延髓裂入路,23例明显偏侧的第四脑室区、脑干肿瘤或小型肿瘤患者经单侧小脑延髓裂入路。结果肿瘤全切除者97例,次全切除者9例;全切除率达91.5%,次全切除率8.5%。术后并发脑积水1例,经脑室-腹腔分流术后治愈;无症状性颅内积气13例,皮下积液2例,吞咽障碍、一过性复视、短暂性消化道出血和呼吸障碍各1例,均经保守治疗后痊愈。术后无出现共济失调、平衡障碍和小脑性缄默综合征、脑脊液漏、颅内出血和感染等并发症,无死亡病例。结论经小脑延髓裂入路显微手术切除第四脑室和脑干背侧的肿瘤是一种微创、安全、有效,且显露充分、方便实用的手术方法。熟练的显微外科技术有助于提高手术的疗效。     

经小脑延髓裂手术切除儿童第四脑室区肿瘤

目的探讨经小脑延髓裂入路手术切除儿童第四脑室区肿瘤的临床疗效及手术技巧。方法32例第四脑室区肿瘤儿童患者均采用枕下正中切口，枕骨骨瓣成形，小脑延髓裂入路，部分病例结合小脑蚓部切开。结果病灶全切除25例，次全切除7例。本组无一例死亡。患儿共济失调及视力下降症状术后有所改善。1例出现面神经核损伤表现，2例术后出现不完全性缄默，皆于3周后恢复。结论经小脑延髓裂入路切除儿童第四脑室区肿瘤，在大多数情况下不需切开小脑下蚓部．可较好地显露肿瘤，且减少了小脑组织的损伤。切除肿瘤过程中注意保护小脑后下动脉及其分支。此外根据肿瘤的病理特性，必要时需结合切开小脑蚓部全切肿瘤。     

关于第四脑室肿瘤手术入路的选择

第四脑室结构复杂,该部位肿瘤的切除有三种手术入路:小脑下蚓部入路、正中孔或扁桃体蚓垂间沟入路、小脑延髓裂入路.其中小脑下蚓部入路为传统的切除第四脑室肿瘤的手术入路,具有入路短的优点,缺点是第四脑室部分区域暴露不理想;正中孔或扁桃体蚓垂间沟入路为现代神经内镜技术应用于切除第四脑室肿瘤的手术入路,是今后微创神经外科治疗第四脑室肿瘤的一大发展方向;小脑延髓裂入路利用小脑延髓裂这一天然间隙,能较充分地暴露第四脑室,但对于上界高于中脑导水管开口的第四脑室肿瘤,单纯的该手术入路切除困难.应根据第四脑室肿瘤具体生长位置、特点选择合理的手术入路.     

经小脑延髓裂入路微创手术治疗脑桥背侧肿瘤(附12例分析)

目的探讨经小脑延髓裂入路微创手术切除肿瘤的疗效。方法回顾性分析12例经小脑延髓裂入路手术的脑桥背侧肿瘤病人的临床资料。结果肿瘤全切除7例,次全切除5例。术后无小脑缄默综合征出现。结论经小脑延髓裂入路微创手术可避免切开小脑蚓部,能安全、有效地切除脑桥背侧病变。     

小脑扁桃体延髓沟的显微解剖及其临床应用价值

目的介绍一种经小脑扁桃体延髓沟入路切除枕骨大孔区、小脑扁桃体延髓沟内、Luschka孔区及第四脑室内肿瘤的方法。方法在熟悉小脑延髓沟显微解剖结构的基础上,临床上经此沟入路切除肿瘤7例。并对3例典型病例举例说明。结果小脑扁桃体延髓沟的显微解剖结构可以分为小脑扁桃体间隙和蚓垂扁桃体间隙两个部分。此沟的底由脉络膜、下髓帆和侧孔壁组成,也是第四脑室的顶。后壁由小脑扁桃体、枕大池组成,外侧壁有第Ⅸ、Ⅹ、Ⅺ、Ⅻ对颅神经,内含小脑后下动脉及其分支和小脑延髓静脉。可分3种方式打开此沟的底,进入第四脑室。2例枕大孔区肿瘤突出于此沟内完全切除;其中1例小脑半球毛细胞型胶质瘤经此入路全切除。4例髓母细胞瘤中2例经此沟底打开第四脑室全切除肿瘤,2例近全切除,1例第四脑室内室管膜瘤经此沟底打开第四脑室全切除肿瘤。结论后正中开颅、经小脑扁桃体延髓沟入路可以获得一个良好的手术野,为切除位于此沟内肿瘤、枕大孔区肿瘤、Luschka孔区肿瘤以及第四脑室内肿瘤提供了一个新的途径,还可以避免因切开小脑蚓部和切除小脑扁桃而产生的并发症。     

显微手术治疗第四脑室肿瘤的并发症防治(附87例分析)

目的探讨显微手术治疗第四脑室肿瘤的并发症防治。方法对87例第四脑室肿瘤病人采用正中孔-小脑蚓部入路或结合小脑延髓裂入路分离切除肿瘤。结果肿瘤全切除64例,次全切除18例,大部切除5例。术后并发症:脑积水6例,血肿3例,颅内感染2例,癫疒间2例,缄默症2例。术后死亡1例。结论积极预防和及时处理并发症,是显微手术治疗第四脑室肿瘤成功的关键。     

神经内镜辅助显微手术治疗儿童第四脑室肿瘤

目的探讨神经内镜辅助显微手术治疗儿童第四脑室肿瘤的临床效果。方法回顾性分析2008年1月至2013年12月神经内镜辅助小脑延髓裂入路（内镜组,32例）和小脑延髓裂联合小脑蚓部入路（对照组,31例）显微手术治疗的63例儿童第四脑室肿瘤患者的临床资料。结果内镜组全切除27例（84.4%）,次全切除5例;对照组全切除26例（83.9%）,次全切除5例。两组肿瘤全切除率无显著差异（P〉0.05）。内镜组术后小脑缄默症发生率（0%）明显低于对照组（12.9%,4/31,P〈0.05）。两组患者术后新发小脑缄默症发生率差异显著（P〈0.05）。59例术后随访6~72个月,55例正常学习、生活;4例复发（3例再次手术,恢复良好;1例死亡）。结论神经内镜辅助显微手术切除儿童第四脑室肿瘤能够避免小脑蚓部切开,减少术后并发症发生率,特别是小脑缄默症的发生率。     

经小脑延髓裂入路早期显微手术清除第四脑室扩张性血肿

目的探讨经小脑延髓裂入路早期行显微手术清除第四脑室扩张性性血肿的效果。方法回顾性分析2010年6月至2015年10月经小脑延髓裂入路早期行显微手术治疗的13例第四脑室扩张性性血肿的临床资料,发病6 h内手术9例,12 h内手术3例。结果无手术死亡病例。术后随访3~6个月,按GOS评价预后,恢复良好2例,中残4例,重残3例,死亡4例。结论经小脑延髓裂入路早期显微手术清除血肿是治疗第四脑室扩张性血肿的有效方法。     

第四脑室肿瘤的显微手术治疗

目的探讨第四脑室肿瘤的显微手术治疗方法.方法回顾性分析25例第四脑室肿瘤病人的手术经验.运用显微神经外科技术,选择小脑蚓部人路或从小脑延髓裂分离、暴露肿瘤,切断肿瘤供血,切除肿瘤过程中注意区分肿瘤组织和脑干,与对延髓呼吸中枢黏连紧密的肿瘤不必强行切除.结果肿瘤全切除20例,近全切除5例;均打通导水管下口.1例死于呼吸中枢损伤.术后出现脑积水5例,行脑室-腹腔分流术.结论显微手术治疗第四脑室肿瘤,手术成功率高,并发症减少.     

经小脑延髓裂夹闭小脑后下动脉远端动脉瘤

目的探讨经小脑延髓裂入路手术夹闭小脑后下动脉远端动脉瘤的优点及显微手术技巧。方法 23例手术夹闭小脑后下动脉远端动脉瘤均经后颅窝正中开颅,经小脑延髓裂入路,显微镜下夹闭小脑后下动脉远端动脉瘤。结果 23例患者,共33枚动脉瘤,完全夹闭31枚,2枚切除,夹闭率94.9%。无一例手术死亡。结论经小脑延髓裂入路夹闭小脑后下动脉远端动脉瘤,不需切开小脑下蚓部,可有效的清除第四脑室血肿,降低脑压。使血管神经显示更加清楚,不损伤任何小脑组织,能最大限度地减少牵拉血管及神经组织,减少动脉瘤的术中破裂,使手术更安全。术后患者不良反应小。     

Epilepsy and anomalies of neuronal migration: MRI and clinical aspects

Neuronal migration disorders are the result of disturbed brain development. In such disorders, neurons are abnormally located. In diagnosing these conditions, magnetic resonance imaging is superior to any other imaging technique. This enables us to improve our knowledge of the clinical correlates of neuronal migration. With reference to migrational disorder, a retrospective study of all 303 patients with epileptic seizures referred for magnetic resonance imaging during a 3-year period was performed, 13 patients (aged 12-41, mean age 27) were identified. They represent 4.3% of the entire study group. Of the patients with known epilepsy, 6.7% and of the mentally retarded, 13.7% had migrational disorders. Four patients had schizencephaly as the dominant finding, one was classified as hemimegalencephaly, 2 had isolated heterotopias, and 6 had localized pachy- and/or poly-microgyria. The clinical pictures are complex. Ectopias of grey matter are recognised foci of epilepsy, but from an epileptological and a clinical viewpoint little attention has been given to these disorders. The present study shows that malmigration is not rare in epilepsy patients, especially not in the mentally retarded.     

Classification of methods in transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) and evolving strategy from historical approaches to contemporary innovations

Transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) encompasses all methods of non-invasive current application to the brain used in research and clinical practice. We present the first comprehensive and technical review, explaining the evolution of tES in both terminology and dosage over the past 100 years of research to present day. Current transcranial Pulsed Current Stimulation (tPCS) approaches such as Cranial Electrotherapy Stimulation (CES) descended from Electrosleep (ES) through Cranial Electro-stimulation Therapy (CET), Transcerebral Electrotherapy (TCET), and NeuroElectric Therapy (NET) while others like Transcutaneous Cranial Electrical Stimulation (TCES) descended from Electroanesthesia (EA) through Limoge, and Interferential Stimulation. Prior to a contemporary resurgence in interest, variations of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation were explored intermittently, including Polarizing current, Galvanic Vestibular Stimulation (GVS), and Transcranial Micropolarization. The development of these approaches alongside Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) and pharmacological developments are considered. Both the roots and unique features of contemporary approaches such as transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) and transcranial Random Noise Stimulation (tRNS) are discussed. Trends and incremental developments in electrode montage and waveform spanning decades are presented leading to the present day. Commercial devices, seminal conferences, and regulatory decisions are noted. We conclude with six rules on how increasing medical and technological sophistication may now be leveraged for broader success and adoption of tES.     

Hepatic Considerations in the Use of Antiepileptic Drugs

Summary: Virtually all of the major antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) can cause hepatotoxicity, although fatal hepatic reactions are rare. The mechanisms, incidences, and risk profiles for such reactions differ from drug to drug. With carbamazepine and phenytoin, hepatotoxicity may be due to drug hypersensitivity. Although the profiles of patients at risk have not been well-defined for these two antiepileptic drugs, it would appear from reports in the literature that older adolescents and adults are at higher risk than children of developing serious or fatal hepatotoxicity. Once hepatotoxicity develops, mortality rates are 10–38% with phenytoin and 25% for carbamazepine. The risk profile for valproate fatal hepatotoxicity has been more clearly defined. Those at primary risk of fatal hepatic dysfunction are children under the age of 2 years who are receiving multiple anticonvulsants and also have significant medical problems in addition to severe epilepsy. The risk is considerably lower for patients over the age of 2 years on valproate monotherapy. In contrast to the risk profile with other AEDs, adults receiving valproate as monotherapy have the lowest risk of hepatotoxicity. Fatal hepatic dysfunction coincident with valproate may be the result of aberrant drug metabolism. Concomitant use of AEDs that induce microsomal P450 enzymes (e.g., phenytoin and phenobarbital) may enhance the production of a toxic metabolite, and hence the greater risk of hepatotoxicity with polypharmacy.     

Vascular Malformations and Epilepsy: Clinical Considerations and Basic Mechanisms

Summary: Vascular malformations (VMs) are associated with epilepsy. The natural history of the various VMs, clinical presentation, and tendency to provoke epilepsy determine treatment strategies. Investigations have probed the mechanisms of epileptogenesis associated with these lesions. Electrophysiologic changes are associated with epileptogenic cortex adjacent to VMs. Putative pathophysiologic mechanisms of epileptogenesis include neuronal cell loss, glial proliferation and abnormal glial physiology, altered neurotransmitter levels, free radical formation, and aberrant second messenger physiology.     

Neonatal Seizures: Problems in Diagnosis and Classification

Summary: The clinical identification of neonatal seizures is critical for the recognition of brain dysfunction; however, diagnosis is often difficult because of the poorly organized and varied nature of these behaviors. Current classification systems are limited in their ability to communicate motor, autonomic, and electroencephalo-graphic features of seizures precisely and to provide a basis for uniform effective diagnosis, therapy, and determination of prognosis. Recent investigations of neonates, utilizing bedside electroencephalographic/polygraphic/ video monitoring techniques, have provided the basis for improved diagnosis and classification of seizures in the newborn. These studies have demonstrated that not all clinical phenomena currently considered to be seizures require electrocortical epileptiform activity for their initiation or elaboration. In addition, the specific clinical character of the phenomena considered to be seizures, the clinical state of the infant, and the character of the EEG indicate the probable pathophysiological mechanisms involved and suggest probable etiologies, prognosis, and therapy. Similarities between animal models that demonstrate reflex physiology and neonates with motor automatisms and tonic posturing suggest that these clinical behaviors may not be epileptic in origin but, rather, primitive movements of progression and posture mediated by brainstem mechanisms. Although not all clinical behaviors currently considered to be neonatal seizures may have similar pathophysiological mechanisms, they are clinically significant because they all indicate brain dysfunction.     

Valproate Monotherapy in the Management of Generalized and Partial Seizures

Summary: For decades, therapeutic tradition has promoted the concept of polypharmacy in the management of epilepsy. In recent years, however, studies have shown that, for most patients, monotherapy can provide comparable or better seizure control than administration of multiple anticonvulsants, while diminishing the potential for adverse reactions, drug interactions, and poor compliance. Valproate is an important monotherapeutic agent that is highly effective in the control of idiopathic primary and secondarily generalized epilepsies, and partial seizures that do not generalize. Comparative studies have found that valproate is at least as effective as phenytoin and carbamazepine in the treatment of generalized and partial seizures. Given the similar efficacy, other factors such as pharmacokinetics and side effects may therefore determine anticonvulsant selection for monotherapy.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy and Utilization in Children

Summary: Carbamazepine is effective for preventing partial and generalized tonic-clonic seizures in children. Although absence epilepsies are more common in children than adults, an estimated 80% of children with epilepsy have seizure types or epilepsies that are potentially responsive to carbamazepine. The differential diagnosis of ictal staring is an especially important issue in children because absence and atypical absence seizures are more prevalent in children than adults. Age-related pharmacokinetic differences and drug interactions are major considerations in children. On average, children have higher clearance rates of carbamazepine, shorter half-lives, and higher ratios of carbamazepine-10, 11-epoxide to carbamazepine than adults. In addition, children with severe epilepsy are more likely to require multiple-drug therapy, which can lead to complex drug interactions. When carbamazepine is administered along with valproate, drug protein binding interactions can cause intermittent side effects.     

Un nouveau cadre conceptuel de travail pour la psychiatrie

In an attempt to place psychiatric thinking and the training of future psychiatrists more centrally into the context of modern biology, the author outlines the beginnings of a new intellectual framework for psychiatry that derives from current biological thinking about the relationship of mind to brain. The purpose of this framework is twofold. First, it is designed to emphasize that the professional requirements for future psychiatrists will demand a greater knowledge of the structure and functioning of the brain than is currently available in most training programs. Second, it is designed to illustrate that the unique domain which psychiatry occupies within academic medicine, the analysis of the interaction between social and biological determinants of behavior, can best be studied by also having a full understanding of the biological components of behavior.