步行锻炼治疗下肢缺血症

目的:评估步行锻炼治疗下肢缺血性间歇性跛行(IC)的疗效.方法:选择IC患者16例(26条患肢),作步行锻炼(每周在步行机上行走锻炼2次,辅以相应的药物治疗)3个月.结果:治疗3个月后,除1条患肢外,所有患肢的缺血表现均有改善或消失,无痛行走距离(PWD)和最大行走距离(MWD)分别提高263.1%和292.7%.结论:步行锻炼是治疗IC有效的方法.     

血管腔内介入联合外科手术治疗下肢多节段动脉硬化闭塞症

目的: 探讨下肢多节段动脉硬化闭塞症的治疗手段及临床疗效。方法:2004年3月—2006年1月，采用髂动脉球囊扩张和支架植入结合动脉旁路术、股深动脉成形术治疗下肢多节段动脉硬化闭塞症21例(24条患肢)。24条患肢行髂动脉球囊扩张和支架植入术，其中12条患肢加行股深动脉成形术，14条患肢加行股-腘动脉人工血管转流术。结果:手术均获得成功，未出现严重并发症。术后踝肱指数0.63 ±0.18与术前0.24±0.13相比有明显提高（P<0.05）。平均随访13个月(1~23个月)。与术前相比患者症状明显改善，仅4例残余有间歇性跛行（跛行距离300~500m），其中3例术后3个月行干细胞移植术后症状明显好转，跛行距离加大（>1 000m）。结论:髂动脉腔内介入结合动脉旁路术、股深动脉成形术是治疗多节段多平面下肢动脉硬化闭塞症的有效方法。手术创伤小，操作方便。手术方式灵活，尤适用于高危重症患者。     

肿瘤患者全麻手术中的保温护理

目的探讨2型糖尿病无间歇性跛行的外周动脉疾病患者的行走能力与其生活质量的关系。方法以中文版行走受损问卷（WIQ）、简明健康调查问卷（SF-36）对39例2型糖尿病无间歇性跛行的外周动脉疾病患者进行调查,同时测量其6分钟行走距离。结果糖尿病患者6分钟行走距离低于同龄老年人（P〈0．01）,其SF-36评分低于常模（P〈0．05,P〈0．01）;WIQ评分、6分钟行走距离与SF-36总分及生理功能、生理职能呈正相关（P〈0．05,P〈0．01）。结论2型糖尿病无间歇性跛行的外周动脉疾病患者的行走能力与其生活质量密切相关,在临床工作中尚需重视2型糖尿病无典型间歇性跛行症状患者的行走能力,并进行积极干预,以提高其生活质量。     

腰椎管狭窄伴间歇性跛行的降钙素治疗(附31例报告)

目的：为了探讨降钙素治疗腰椎管狭窄伴间歇性跛行（ＮＩＣＬ）的疗效及作用机制。方法：应用鳗鱼降钙素对３１例腰椎管狭窄伴间歇性跛行患者进行治疗。结果：治疗４周后７２％患者的步行能力提高，下肢疼痛症状减轻；８周后８３％患者的步行能力明显提高，相伴出现的下肢痛亦有所改善。结论：认为降钙素不仅能迅速有效地缓解骨质疏松骨痛，而且可有效地提高腰椎管狭窄伴间歇性跛行患者的步行能力，改善神经功能，其作用机制可能是由于降钙素能增加马尾神经组织的血供。     

自体外周血单个核细胞移植治疗下肢缺血53例的临床研究

目的观察自体外周血单个核细胞移植治疗下肢缺血的有效性和安全性。方法2004年6月至2005年10月，采用自体外周血单个核细胞移植治疗53例（83条下肢）下肢严重缺血。病因为糖尿病性下肢缺血44例71条患肢（44／53，83．0％）；单纯性下肢动脉硬化5例6条患肢（5／53，9．4％）；血栓闭塞性脉管炎4例6条患肢（4／53，7．6％）。本组患者中80．7％（67／83）患肢有疼痛感，72．3％（60／83）肢体有冷感，67．5％（56／83）肢体有麻木感。移植后2个月评估其疗效。结果本组无死亡病例。移植后2个月总的疼痛缓解率为83．6％，总的冷感缓解率为91．7％，总的麻木缓解率为75．0％。有39．8％（33／83）患肢的ABI有所增加。89．2％（74／83）患者经皮测定的氧分压（TePO2）有不同程度的增加。29．2％患者的溃疡面有不同程度的缩小。有44．6％（23例37条）于术后行血管造影评估，其中72．9％患肢有不同程度的侧支血管形成。15条（18．1％）患肢最终行截肢，其中5条患肢降低了截肢平面。结论自体外周血单个核细胞移植治疗下肢缺血性疾病是一种简单、安全、有效的方法；在治疗过程中需要注意心脑血管并发症的发生。     

下肢延长术后的功能锻炼

1989年5月～1991年9月,作者对48例下肢延长术后的患肢进行功能锻炼。本组中左股骨延长1例,胫骨延长47例,随访38例,优16例(跛行明显改善,步态近正常,步行8～10公里无不适),良12例(跛行改善,步行3～8公里无不适),尚可6例(轻度跛行,步行1～3公里需休息),无效4例(跛行及耐力均无改善,伴膝关节僵硬,步行受限1例),有效率89.5％。48例中男34例,     

骨髓动员刺激后自体骨髓源单个核细胞移植治疗下肢缺血的初步临床研究

目的观察骨髓动员刺激后自体骨髓单个核细胞移植治疗下肢缺血的初步疗效。方法2005年5月～2005年12月收治下肢缺血35例43侧患肢,男23例,女12例。年龄34～90岁,平均71．3岁。病因：糖尿病下肢缺血30例38侧患肢,单纯动脉硬化闭塞症2例2侧患肢,血栓闭塞性脉管炎3例3侧患肢。其中间歇性跛行期5例5侧患肢;静息痛期15例19侧患肢;组织缺损期15例19侧患肢,其中组织溃疡期9例12侧患肢;组织坏疽期6例7侧患肢。在抽取骨髓前使用粒细胞集落刺激因子刺激骨髓2～3d,每天300μg;抽取骨髓血130-200ml,经分离纯化后再行移植。采用下肢肌肉局部注射13例19侧患肢,下肢动脉腔内注射16例16侧患肢,下肢肌肉局部注射与动脉腔内同时注射6例8侧患肢进行移植。结果术后2个月肢体疼痛改善率为94．7％,冷感改善率为97．1％,肢体麻木改善率为93．3％。5例5侧患肢间歇性跛行距离均有不同程度增加。44．2％患者的踝肱比值（ankle／brachial index ABI）有不同程度增加。39侧患肢行经皮氧分压（transeutaneous oxygen pressure,TeP02）测定,92．3％有不同程度增高。患肢溃疡：在9例11侧患肢中,愈合1侧,明显缩小或缩小3侧,无变化7侧,其中3侧患肢被截肢。术后行血管造影评估25例34侧患肢,91．2％患肢的侧支循环有不同程度增加。并发症：骨髓动员刺激出现发热和轻微乏力各1例,均自行缓解;单个核细胞移植后1周出现轻度心肌梗死1例,药物治疗1周后恢复出院,1个月后因患肢疼痛加重行膝下截肢。32例40侧患肢获随访3412个月,症状消失13侧,明显改善15侧,改善8侧,复发2侧,无效2侧。客观评价标准与术前比较ABI增加25侧;TcPOz测定增加36侧;21侧患肢的血管造影显示90．5％患肢有新生侧支形成;10侧患肢足部溃疡7侧愈合,3侧明显缩小;3侧患肢截除坏疽足趾者于术后2～3个月愈合出院。结论经骨髓动员刺激后的骨髓单个核细胞移植下肢缺血,具有抽取骨髓血少、细胞量多、近期效果好且安全性高的优点,是除自体骨髓单个核细胞移植和外周血干细胞移植外的又一种治疗下肢缺血的新方法。远期效果尚需进一步随访。     

青少年腘动脉陷迫综合征17例诊疗分析

目的 总结青少年腘动脉陷迫综合征（popliteal artery entrapment syndrome,PAES）的影像学诊断与手术治疗经验.方法 对17 例（18 条下肢）青少年PAES 患者术前施行了超声多普勒,CTA或MR检查,并对17条患肢施行了相应的手术治疗,监测手术前后患肢踝肱指数（ankle brachial index,ABI）变化.13 条患肢施行了腘动脉周围异常组织松解术,其中5条因动脉闭塞同时施行了大隐静脉旁路移植术,4条患肢因动脉内膜增厚实行腘动脉内膜切除＋动脉成形术;4条肢体行自体大隐静脉移植术.结果 16例患者随访 6个月～6年,平均（30.88±19.88）个月,所有手术肢体间歇性跛行症状治愈,踝肱指数由术前的（0.47±0.09）上升至术后的（0.96±0.07）,较术前显著提高（P＜0.01）.1例患者因肺动脉栓塞术后1d死亡.结论 PAES是青少年下肢动脉缺血的一个重要病因.影像学诊断是确诊本病的重要手段,早期积极外科干预预后较好.     

血管腔内介入联合外科手术治疗下肢多节段动脉硬化闭塞症

目的：探讨下肢多节段动脉硬化闭塞症的治疗手段及临床疗效。方法：采用下肢动脉球囊扩张、支架植入结合动脉旁路术、股深动脉成形及原位大隐静脉动脉化,治疗下肢多节段动脉硬化闭塞症31例（36条患肢）,行髂动脉支架植入球囊扩张术33条患肢;股总动脉支架植入球囊扩张术3条患肢,23条患肢行股一胭动脉人工血管旁路术,12条患肢行股深动脉成形术,6条行原位的大隐静脉动脉化。结果：手术均获得成功,未出现严重并发症。术后踝肱指数（0．65±0．18）与术前（0．25±0．11）相比较有明显提高（P〈0．05）。平均随访14个月（2～24个月）,与术前相比,患者术后症状明显好转,跛行距离加大（〉1000m）。结论：下肢动脉腔内介入结合动脉旁路术、股深动脉成形术、大隐静脉动脉化等是治疗多节段多平面下肢动脉硬化闭塞症的有效方法。     

动脉自膨式支架置入治疗下肢缺血

目的探讨下肢各个部位动脉腔内自膨式支架置入治疗下肢缺血的疗效。方法对2002年1月-2006年3月支架治疗65例71条患肢的临床资料进行临床回顾性研究，其中52．3％（38／71）肢体为糖尿病下肢动脉硬化，47、7％（33／71）肢体为非糖尿病下肢动脉硬化。支架部位包括腹主动脉支架2例2条患肢2枚支架，腹主动脉及髂动脉闭塞行腹主动脉和单侧髂动脉支架置入1例3枚支架，髂动脉支架33例35条患肢38枚支架，髂动脉和股浅动脉同时支架置入6例6条息肢12枚支架，股浅动脉支架置入16例19条肢体23枚支架，股浅动脉和近端胭动脉病变同时支架置入5例6条患肢10枚支架，远端胭动脉支架2例2条患肢。结果65例随访2—50个月，平均16．1月，2例腹主动脉支架、1例腹主动脉与髂动脉支架同时置入全部通畅；髂动脉支架闭塞4例4条患肢，通畅率88．6％（31／35）；股浅动脉支架闭塞4例4条患肢，通畅率为78．9％（15／19）；股浅动脉与近端胭动脉支架闭塞1例，通畅率83．3％（5／6）；远端胭动脉支架2例全部闭塞；3例小腿动脉流出道主干动脉全部闭塞的支架术后平均5．6月仍然保持通畅。结论下肢动脉腔内支架置入可作为治疗主髂动脉病变的首选方法；对于股动脉和近段胭动脉病变也可根据情况适当选用，尤其是年老体弱，无法耐受动脉旁路移植手术的患者，也可以作为首选方法；对于膝下小动脉病变应慎重使用支架。     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.