JCL Roundtable: HDL in the primary care setting

One of the most difficult and confusing issues for clinical lipidologists and physicians in general has been the management of low concentrations of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol. We know this to be a very powerful predictor of risk in scores of community-based and clinical trial cohorts. Raising this number in many patients would seem to provide a great therapeutic opportunity, but so far this concept has been very difficult to prove. I have been joined for this discussion by a cardiovascular epidemiologist, Dr. Rachel Mackey, from the University of Pittsburgh and two clinical lipidologists who have studied and written in depth about this problem. These are Dr. Benjamin Ansell from the University of California in Los Angeles and Dr. Peter Toth from Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine. Our objective in this discussion is to give primary care clinicians our thoughts about the recent research findings and the implications of these data on the best clinical practice.     

Managing violence in primary care: an evidence-based approach.

An understanding of the risk factors for violence can help primary care staff to evaluate and manage risk in the primary care setting. They will be able to acknowledge that risk factors are not static but can vary according to time, place, situation, and support networks. General practitioners (GPs) should not ignore their clinical acumen, but should use their knowledge of the patient to form part of a risk assessment. Managing violence in primary care should focus on the individual; for example, in the training of primary care staff. It should also involve an examination of the wider structure of primary care; for example, the safe design of buildings, avoiding long waiting times, and having 'no intoxication' policies for practices. There is a pressing need for primary care-based research in this area. We acknowledge that in our understanding of this topic there are two extremes that should be avoided. The first is that our perceived risk of violence often exceeds the real, absolute risk. Where our perceptions are overstated, patients run the risk of being excluded from primary care or of being inappropriately detained on psychiatric wards under the Mental Health Act. At the other extreme, where risk is understated, staff can play the 'hero' or the 'martyr' in an attempt to defuse a situation without support from other colleagues. Like many other situations in primary care, working in isolation carries real and important risks. Threats of violence are best managed in primary care by having a collaborative practice approach underpinned by a support ethos from primary care organisations.     

Palliative care in the community: setting practice guidelines for primary care teams.

BACKGROUND. Previous studies have demonstrated deficiencies in palliative care in the community. One method of translating the results of research into clinical practice, in order to produce more effective health care, is the development of clinical guidelines. Setting standards for such care has been performed by care teams in both hospital and hospice settings but not in primary care. AIM. This study set out to develop guidelines for primary care teams to follow in the provision of palliative care in the community using facilitated case discussions with the members of such teams, as a form of internal audit. METHOD. Five practices were randomly chosen from the family health services authority medical list. Meetings between the facilitators and primary care teams were held over a period of one year. The teams were asked to describe good aspects of care, areas of concern and suggestions to improve these, in recent cases of patient deaths. RESULTS. In total 56 cases were discussed. All practices felt that cohesive teamwork, coordinated management, early involvement of nursing staff and the identification of a key worker were essential for good terminal care. Concerns arose in clinical and administrative areas but the majority were linked to poor communication, either between patient and professionals within the primary care team or between primary and secondary care. All the positive aspects of care, concerns and suggestions were collated by the facilitators into guidelines for teams to refer to from the initial diagnosis of a terminal illness through to the patient's death and care of the relatives afterwards. CONCLUSION. Developing multidisciplinary as opposed to medical guidelines for palliative care allows primary health care teams to create standards that are acceptable to them and stimulates individuals within the teams to accept responsibility for initiating the change necessary for more effective care. The process of facilitating teams to discuss their work allows for recognition and respect of individuals' roles and more importantly provides shared ownership, an important contributory factor in the implementation of guidelines.     

Managing occupational risks for hepatitis C transmission in the health care setting

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is a significant contemporary health problem in the United States and elsewhere. Because it is primarily transmitted via blood, hepatitis C infection presents risks for both nosocomial transmission to patients and occupational spread to health care workers. Recent insights into the pathogenesis, immunopathogenesis, natural history, and treatment of infection caused by this unique flavivirus provide a rationale for the use of new strategies for managing occupational hepatitis C infections when they occur. This article reviews this developing information. Recently published data demonstrate success rates in the treatment of "acute hepatitis C syndrome" that approach 100\%, and although these studies are not directly applicable to all occupational infections, they may provide important clues to optimal management strategies. In addition, the article delineates approaches to the prevention of occupational exposures and also addresses the difficult issue of managing HCV-infected health care providers. The article summarizes currently available data about the nosocomial epidemiology of HCV infection and the magnitude of risk and discusses several alternatives for managing exposure and infection. No evidence supports the use of immediate postexposure prophylaxis with immunoglobulin, immunomodulators, or antiviral agents. Based on the very limited data available, the watchful waiting and preemptive therapy strategies described in detail in this article represent reasonable interim approaches to the complex problem of managing occupational HCV infections, at least until more definitive data are obtained.     

Management of major depression in the primary care setting

BACKGROUND: Patients treated in community clinics, particularly those of minority status, may rely more heavily on primary care physicians (PCPs) for the diagnosis and management of depression. We wished to determine how PCPs in a community clinic setting initially manage patients newly diagnosed with major depression. METHODS: 698 patients were screened for major depression by the Structural Clinical Interview for DSM-III-R in a community-based primary care health center. Forty outpatients (29 Hispanic) were found to suffer from major depression. A letter explaining positive findings was sent to the patients' PCPs. Medical record charts were reviewed 3 months later to determine the PCP's management following the diagnosis. RESULTS: Of the 38 patients who remained in the study at 3 months, 20 (53%) received no intervention from the PCP by the end of 3 months after diagnosis, and of these, 14 were Hispanic. Five (13%) were prescribed an antidepressant by the PCP. Nine (24%) were referred to mental health services for medication, psychotherapy or combination treatment. Four (11%) were prescribed an antidepressant and then referred to mental health services. Differences between management of Hispanic and non-Hispanic patients were not statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS: Independent screening by psychiatrists in primary care settings may not be adequate enough to ensure appropriate management of depression by PCPs. Possible explanations may include time constraints during primary care visits, patient and/or physician reticence, and insufficient education of PCPs about depression.     

Late-life depression in the primary care setting: Challenges,collaborative care,and prevention

Late-life depression is highly prevalent worldwide. In addition to being a debilitating illness, it is a risk factor for excess morbidity and mortality. Older adults with depression are at risk for dementia, coronary heart disease, stroke, cancer and suicide. Individuals with late-life depression often have significant medical comorbidity and, poor treatment adherence. Furthermore, psychosocial considerations such as gender, ethnicity, stigma and bereavement are necessary to understand the full context of late-life depression.     

Co-design to increase implementation of insomnia guidelines in primary care

BackgroundSleep disorders, including insomnia, are widespread problems, which have increased during the COVID-19 pandemic. Guidelines for the treatment of insomnia prioritize non-pharmacological interventions. Nevertheless, primary care professionals lack well-developed material for patient education, that could help implement the treatment guidelines in Flanders, Belgium.ObjectiveThis project’s purpose is to develop complementary, written educational material, grounded in the principles of evidence-based practice, for primary care.Patient InvolvementThis co-design project involved patients and health professionals. Special attention was given to including patients with low health literacy, and empowering patients when designing in mixed groups.MethodsBased on the framework of Sanders and Stappers (2014), data were collected and analyzed in four phases. Pre-design, needs were explored using think-aloud studies and focus groups. Next, for generative purposes, the design studio method was used. Then, evaluation of the prototype happened with another series of think-aloud studies. Finally, post-design, implementation of the product was evaluated with a short survey.ResultsTwenty-five participants (10 patients and 15 healthcare professionals) contributed to the development of an educational patient leaflet called Sssssst. How do you sleep (at night)? Out of 30 professionals who received the printed leaflet for use in practice, 17 provided feedback after six months. Generally, the leaflet was well received. Visual design aspects stimulated use in practice.DiscussionWritten and visual materials aid primary care professionals to educate patients on sleep and insomnia. This supporting tool also stimulates self-management in patients. Although inspiring and educational for all stakeholders, a co-design approach is no guarantee for the product to “fit all”.     

Preventing diabetes-related morbidity and mortality in the primary care setting

Diabetes is the leading cause of blindness, end-stage renal failure, non-traumatic limb amputations, and cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. The vast majority of patients with diabetes receive routine care from primary care providers who are not endocrinologists. Primary care providers, including internists, family practice physicians, and physician extenders with advanced skills, face the important task of implementing standards of care recommendations for persons with diabetes. These recommendations draw upon an emerging body of compelling evidence regarding the prevention and management diabetes and its complications. The challenge of diabetes must be tackled on three fronts: Primary prevention, secondary prevention (of diabetes complications), and tertiary prevention (of morbidity and mortality from established complications). There is now abundant evidence that type 2 diabetes, which accounts for greater than 90% of diabetes world-wide, is preventable. Moreover, the complications of diabetes are preventable by a policy of tight glycemic control and comprehensive risk reduction. Even after complications have set in, intensive glucose control dramatically reduces the risk of progression of complications. The challenge, therefore, is the identification of strategies that enable translation of existing scientific data to pragmatic benefits. This article proposes 10 strategies for preventing or reducing diabetes-related morbidity and mortality at the primary care level. These strategies include provider education; patient empowerment through promotion of lifestyle and self-care practices; surveillance for microvascular complications; cardiovascular risk reduction; efficient use of medications; goal setting; and stratification of patients and triaging of those with poor glycemic control for more intensive management.     

A primary care "friendly" cognitive behavioral insomnia therapy

OBJECTIVES: This study was conducted to test the effectiveness of an abbreviated cognitive-behavioral insomnia therapy (ACBT) with primary DESIGN: A single-blind, randomized group design was used in which study patients were randomized to either a brief, 2-session ACBT or a similarly brief intervention (SHC) that included only generic sleep hygiene recommendations. SETTING: A university-affiliated Department of Veterans Affairs medical center. PARTICIPANTS: Twenty (2 women) veteran patients (M(age) = 51.0 yrs., SD = 13.7 years) who met criteria for chronic primary insomnia. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS: Participants completed sleep logs for 2 weeks and questionnaires to measures insomnia symptoms, sleep-related self-efficacy, and dysfunctional beliefs about sleep before treatment, during a 2-week posttreatment assessment, and again at a 3-month posttreatment follow-up. Statistical analyses showed that ACBT produced significantly larger improvements across a majority of outcome measures than did SHC. Case-by-case analyses showed that only the ACBT produced consistent positive effects across study patients, and a sizeable proportion of these patients receiving this treatment achieved clinically significant improvements by their study endpoints. Approximately 52% of those receiving the ACBT reported at least a 50% reduction in their wake time after sleep onset, and 55.6% of ACBT-treated patients who entered the study with pathologic scores on an Insomnia Symptom Questionnaire (ISQ), achieved normal ISQ scores by their final outcome assessment. CONCLUSIONS: ACBT is effective for reducing subjective sleep disturbance and insomnia symptoms in primary care patients.     

How do physicians teach empathy in the primary care setting?

To explore how primary care clinician-teachers actually attempt to convey empathy to medical students and residents, the author carried out a qualitative study in 1999-2000 in which 12 primary care physicians reflected on their views of empathy, how they demonstrated empathy to patients, and how they went about teaching empathy to learners. Interview data were triangulated with observations of actual teaching sessions and informal questioning of students and residents who had been taught by the faculty participants. Grounded theory was used to interpret the data. The faculty had clear conceptualizations of what empathy meant in clinical practice, but differed as to whether it was primarily a measurable, behavioral skill or a global attitude. Respondents stressed the centrality of role modeling in teaching, and most used debriefing strategies, as well as both learner- and patient-centered approaches, in instructing learners about empathy. Findings suggest that limiting the teaching of empathy to a skill-based approach does not reflect the richness of what actually occurs in the clinical setting, and that it is important to teach empathy comprehensively, acknowledging both behavioral and attitudinal tools.     

Measuring the costs of primary care education in the ambulatory setting.

In 1995, the authors obtained cost, operations, and educational activity data from 98 ambulatory care sites across the United States in which primary care teaching was occurring and compared those data with the corresponding data from 84 ambulatory care sites where no teaching was going on. The teaching sites in the sample were found to have 24-36% higher operating costs than the non-teaching sites. This overall difference in costs is approximately the same difference in costs earlier estimated for university teaching hospitals compared with non-teaching hospitals. These costs are shared by all involved in the ambulatory education process: sponsors, sites, and faculty. In a related finding, the authors discovered that 30-50% of all ambulatory care sites thought not to be involved in education are in fact teaching at a high level of involvement. Further research into not only the costs but the value of education in the clinical setting is encouraged. The authors also hope that the publication of this report will encourage accrediting bodies and professional organizations to improve the information available about ambulatory care training in general.     

Treating insomnia in Swiss primary care practices: A survey study based on case vignettes

Guidelines recommend cognitive behavioural therapy for insomnia (CBT‐I) as first‐line treatment for chronic insomnia, but it is not clear how many primary care physicians (PCPs) in Switzerland prescribe this treatment. We created a survey that asked PCPs how they would treat chronic insomnia and how much they knew about CBT‐I. The survey included two case vignettes that described patients with chronic insomnia, one with and one without comorbid depression. PCPs also answered general questions about treating chronic insomnia and about CBT‐I and CBT‐I providers. Of the 820 Swiss PCPs we invited, 395 (48%) completed the survey (mean age 54 years; 70% male); 87% of PCPs prescribed sleep hygiene and 65% phytopharmaceuticals for the patient who had only chronic insomnia; 95% prescribed antidepressants for the patient who had comorbid depression. In each case, 20% of PCPs prescribed benzodiazepines or benzodiazepine receptor agonists, 8% prescribed CBT‐I, 68% said they knew little about CBT‐I, and 78% did not know a CBT‐I provider. In the clinical case vignettes, most PCPs treated chronic insomnia with phytopharmaceuticals and sleep hygiene despite their lack of efficacy, but PCPs rarely prescribed CBT‐I, felt they knew little about it, and usually knew no CBT‐I providers. PCPs need more information about the benefits of CBT‐I and local CBT‐I providers and dedicated initiatives to implement CBT‐I in order to reduce the number of patients who are prescribed ineffective or potentially harmful medications.     

A pharmaceutical needs assessment in a primary care setting.

BACKGROUND: As part of a reconfiguration of its general medical services, Ardach Health Centre has integrated a community pharmacist into the centre to provide pharmaceutical care. In order to systematically identify areas of 'pharmaceutical need', a needs assessment was carried out during October 1997. AIM: To prioritize and assist the planning of pharmaceutical care provision within the centre, such that maximum gain could be achieved from inevitable limited resources. METHOD: A four-stage pharmaceutical needs assessment method was created around a selection of techniques: gap analysis, the nominal group technique, and rapid participatory appraisal. This was then applied to a random sample of people drawn from the patient register of Ardach Health Centre and all the health care professionals associated with their care. RESULTS: Through the four-stage process, a pharmaceutical service priority league table was constructed to reflect the unmet pharmaceutical needs of patients and their primary health care providers. The table provided a structured framework around which pharmaceutical service provision within the health centre could be planned. CONCLUSION: We have developed a pragmatic, systematic method of identifying the prevalence of unmet pharmaceutical needs of a community. The assessment assisted service selection, balancing what should be done with what could be done and what could be afforded.     

"Best practice' for Helicobacter pylori eradication in the primary care setting

This study determined the relative cost effectiveness of proton pump inhibitor (PPI) based triple therapy regimens for Helicobacter pylori eradication in the primary care setting. Using decision tree analysis the expected cost for each H. pylori eradication strategy was determined from the cost of each treatment option multiplied by the probability of that option occurring. Probabilities were obtained using the GMS prescribing database where all patients who received amoxycillin, clarithromycin and a PPI in the ERHA region in 2002 were followed for one year. Depending on the regimen adopted, 40.8% to 46.1% of patients did not require any further medication in the year following H. pylori eradication treatment. The strategy of rabeprazole, amoxycillin and clarithromycin was the most cost effective option with a cost of Euro466 per asymptomatic patient. Two-way sensitivity analysis indicated that the cost of rabeprazole triple therapy and the duration of rabeprazole maintenance therapy would each have to increase by 30% before this strategy ceased to be the most cost effective and hence best practice option for eradicating Helicobacter pylori in the primary care setting in Ireland.