Carnitine alters binding of aflatoxin to DNA and proteins in rat hepatocytes and cell-free systems.

The objective of this study was to determine effects of L-carnitine on aflatoxin B(1) (AFB(1))-DNA adduct formation in isolated rat hepatocytes, its dose response, specificity and mode of action. All experiments were conducted in either freshly isolated rat hepatocytes or cell-free systems. There was negative linear correlation between the dosage of carnitine and formation of [(3)H]AFB(1)-DNA adducts in the hepatocytes; however, the partitioning of AFB(1) into cellular compartments was not affected by carnitine. The attenuating effect of carnitine on AFB(1)-DNA adduct formation was also present in a cell-free system, but there was lack of specificity because acetylcarnitine and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) were equally effective. Carnitine appears to interfere with bioactivation of AFB(1) and binding of AFB(1)-epoxide to DNA. On the contrary, carnitine enhanced the binding of AFB(1) and its epoxide to microsomal proteins, plasma proteins and bovine serum albumin. These results indicate that carnitine diverts AFB(1)-epoxide away from DNA by promoting binding to proteins. We conclude that modulation of AFB(1) binding to proteins and DNA by carnitine alters the carcinogenic and hepatotoxic potential of AFB(1) and poses concerns about the human AFB(1)-exposure data based on the AFB(1)-albumin adduct concentrations as a biomarker.     

Effect of butylated hydroxytoluene and butylated hydroxyanisole on the mutagenicity of 3,2´‐dimethyl‐4‐aminobiphenyl

This study was undertaken to investigate the possible antimutagenic effects of butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) on 3,2´‐dimethyl‐4‐aminobiphenyl (DMAB)‐induced mutagenicity, using the Ames Salmonella/mammalian microsome system. The addition of 100–250 μg of BHT or 25–500 μg of BHA/plate was found to inhibit DMAB‐induced mutagenicity in Salmonella strains TA 98 and TA 100. In TA 100, the mutagenicity was further inhibited with the addition of S9 prepared from the livers of rats fed a 0.6% BHT diet as compared to S9 from the animals fed a diet containing no BHT.     

Associations of plasma aflatoxin B1-albumin adduct level with plasma selenium level and genetic polymorphisms of glutathione S-transferase M1 and T1

Mortality from hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is extraordinarily high in Matzu, an island off the coast of Southeastern China. To investigate factors associated with plasma aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)-albumin adduct level, we studied 304 healthy adult residents from Matzu. AFB1-albumin adducts were determined by competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, hepatitis B surface antigen status by enzyme immunoassay, genotypes of glutathione S-transferase (GST) M1 and T1 by polymerase chain reaction, plasma selenium by atomic absorption spectrometry, and plasma retinol, alpha-tocopherol, alpha-carotene, and beta-carotene levels by high-performance liquid chromatography. Men had higher AFB1-albumin adduct levels than women. GSTM1-nonnull and GSTT1-null genotypes and low plasma selenium level were significantly associated with an increased level of AFB1-albumin adducts among men, whereas age was significantly correlated with adduct level among women. High intake of fermented beans was associated with an increased adduct level among men and women. The inverse associations between plasma selenium level and AFB1-albumin adducts were statistically significant among those with null genotypes of GSTM1 and GSTT1, but not among the nonnull genotypes. This study provides insight into the dietary and genetic factors influencing AFB1-albumin adduct formation in an isolated population with high liver cancer mortality.     

The antioxidant and radical scavenging activities of black pepper (Piper nigrum) seeds

Water and ethanol crude extracts from black pepper (Piper nigrum) were investigated for their antioxidant and radical scavenging activities in six different assay, namely, total antioxidant activity, reducing power, 1,1-Diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging, superoxide anion radical scavenging, hydrogen peroxide scavenging, and metal chelating activities. Both water extract (WEBP) and ethanol extract (EEBP) of black pepper exhibited strong total antioxidant activity. The 75 microg/ml concentration of WEBP and EEBP showed 95.5% and 93.3% inhibition on peroxidation of linoleic acid emulsion, respectively. On the other hand, at the same concentration, standard antioxidants such as butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) and alpha-tocopherol exhibited 92.1%, 95.0%, and 70.4% inhibition on peroxidation of linoleic acid emulsion, respectively. Also, total phenolic content in both WEBP and EEBP were determined as gallic acid equivalents. The total phenolics content of water and ethanol extracts were determined by the Folin-Ciocalteu procedure and 54.3 and 42.8 microg gallic acid equivalent of phenols was detected in 1 mg WEBP and EEBP.     

Effects of dietary selenium and vitamin E on covalent binding of aflatoxin to chick liver cell macromolecules

Day-old single comb white Leghorn chicks of both sexes maternally depleted in selenium (Se) and vitamin E (VE) were fed a low Se and VE-free semipurified basal diet or that diet supplemented with graded levels of Se (0.2 - 20.0 ppm as Na2SeO3) of VE (100 IU/g as all-rac-alpha-tocopheryl acetate), or both. At 14 days of age, chicks were given 1 mg/kg [3H] aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) i.p. and killed either 2 or 24 hours later. Covalent binding of AFB1 to liver DNA and RNA in chicks fed the basal diet was significantly greater than in chicks supplemented with Se or VE, or both. Phenobarbital treatment prior to administration of AFB1 decreased adduct formation in most groups, and abolished differences in adduct formation due to diet. These results suggest that combined Se-VE deficiency enhances activation or inhibits detoxification of AFB1 in vivo.     

Associations of serum aflatoxin B1-lysine adduct level with socio-demographic factors and aflatoxins intake from nuts and related nut products in Malaysia

Aflatoxins are one of the major risk factors in the multi-factorial etiology of human hepatocellular carcinoma. Therefore, the information on aflatoxins exposure is very important in the intervention planning in order to reduce the dietary intake of aflatoxins, especially among the children. This study investigated the relationship between aflatoxin B(1) (AFB(1)) lysine adduct levers in serum and socio-demographic factors and dietary intake of aflatoxins from nuts and nut products in Penang, Malaysia. A cross-sectional field study was conducted in five districts of Penang. A survey on socio-demographic characteristics was administered to 364 healthy adults from the three main ethnic groups (Malay, Chinese and Indian). A total of 170 blood samples were successfully collected and tested for the level of AFB(1)-lysine adduct. 97% of the samples contained AFB(1)-lysine adduct above the detection limit of 0.4 pg/mg albumin and ranged from 0.20 to 23.16 pg/mg albumin (mean±standard deviation=7.67±4.54 pg/mg albumin; median=7.12 pg/mg albumin). There was no significant association between AFB(1)-lysine adduct levels with gender, district, education level, household number and occupation when these socio-demographic characteristics were examined according to high or low levels of AFB(1)-lysine. However, participants in the age group of 31-50 years were 3.08 times more likely to have high AFB(1) levels compared to those aged between 18 and 30 years (P=0.026). Significant difference (P=0.000) was found among different ethnic groups. Chinese and Indian participants were 3.05 and 2.35 times more likely to have high AFB(1) levels than Malay. The result of AFB(1)-lysine adduct suggested that Penang adult population is likely to be exposed to AFB(1) but at a level of less than that needed to cause direct acute illness or death.     

Antioxidant activity measured in different solvent fractions obtained from Mentha spicata Linn.: an analysis by ABTS*+ decolorization assay

Antioxidant compounds are abundantly available in plants and play an important role in scavenging free radicals, thus providing protection to humans against oxidative DNA damage. Mentha spicata Linn., commonly called spearmint, belongs to the family lamiaceae. It was selected in the present study because Mentha extracts have antioxidant properties due to the presence of eugenol, caffeic acid, rosmarinic acid and alpha-tocopherol. Four solvent fractions (hexane, chloroform, ethyl acetate and water) of ethanolic extract of dried leaves powder of M. spicata were analyzed for total antioxidant activity (TAA) and relative antioxidant activity (RAA) and compared with standard antioxidants such as Quercetin, beta-carotene, L-ascorbic acid and glutathione using ABTS*+ decolorization assay (ABTS/Potassium persulphate). The antioxidant activity was assumed to be from the total phenolic content of the ethanolic extract. Total phenolics are found to be highest in ethyl acetate fraction (54 mg/g) and least in hexane fraction (13 mg/g) and more or less similar in water and chloroform fractions (30-32 mg/g). TAA is found to be less in hexane and chloroform fractions (<53% at 50 microg/ml) and highest in ethyl acetate (95% at 20 microg/ml) and water (84% at 30 microg/ml) fractions. The RAA of ethyl acetate fraction is 1.1 compared to quercetin (at 5 microM/ml), but greater when compared to beta-carotene (15 microM/ml), L-ascorbic acid (15 microM/ml) and glutathione (15 microM/ml). The RAAs with these antioxidants are in the range of 1.31 -1.6. The values of RAAs for water fraction also show similar trend and are in the range of 1.0-1.4. The antioxidant activities of the solvent factions are closely related to the content of total phenolics present in them.     

Variability in aflatoxin-albumin adduct levels and effects of hepatitis B and C virus infection and glutathione S-transferase M1 and T1 genotype

Exposure to aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), an important cofactor in the etiology of hepatocellular carcinoma in Taiwan, is influenced by dietary and other factors. The present study examined the intraindividual variability in AFB1-albumin adducts, the most reliable long-term biomarker of AFB1 exposure, and whether the baseline or follow-up adduct levels and the intraindividual variability in adduct levels are modified by endogenous and environmental factors. The study measured AFB1-albumin adduct levels among 264 healthy male residents of three townships (Hu-Hsi, Ma-Kung, and Pai-Hsa) of Penghu Islets, Taiwan, at two different time points with a median interval of 1.68 years (range 1.00-3.17 years). There was a generalized reduction in the adduct levels, with the median values being 22.1 pmol/mg (range 5.0-355.8 pmol/mg) at time 1 and 14.3 pmol/mg (range 5.0-205.2 pmol/mg) at time 2. This intraindividual variability in adduct levels was inversely associated with the age of subjects and the time interval between the two blood draws. The variability in adduct levels was lower among subjects in Hu-Hsi and Pai-Hsa townships as compared to those in Ma-Kung. No significant association was observed for the intraindividual variability in AFB1-albumin adducts with regard to the season when blood was drawn. There was also no significant association between intraindividual variability and hepatitis B surface antigen, anti-hepatitis C virus (anti-HCV), glutathione S-transferase (GST) M1, or GSTT1 status. In conclusion, we found substantial intraindividual variability in the AFB1 exposure (as determined by AFB1-albumin adducts) in Taiwan, which was probably more likely related to dietary or other environmental influences rather than to endogenous factors (e.g., hepatitis B/C viral infection or GST M1/T1 genetic status).     

Organosulfur compounds of garlic modulate mutagenesis, metabolism, and DNA binding of aflatoxin B1

The effects of two organosulfur compounds of garlic (ajoene and diallyl sulfide) and a crude garlic extract on aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)-induced mutagenesis were determined using rat liver 9,000 g supernatant (S-9) as the activation system and Salmonella typhimurium TA-100 as the tester strain. The effects of these compounds on AFB1 binding to calf thymus DNA were also measured. Metabolites of AFB1 were isolated and analyzed by reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography. All these compounds inhibited S-9-dependent mutagenesis induced by AFB1. They also inhibited AFB1 binding to DNA. A significant decrease in organo-soluble metabolites of AFB1 was observed with ajoene and garlic extract. An increase of glucuronide and glutathione conjugates was obtained with garlic extract. The results indicate that garlic compounds tested in this study are antimutagenic and, potentially, anticarcinogenic.     

1,1-Diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl radical-scavenging active compounds from greater cardamom (Amomum subulatum Roxb.)

Constituents of the fruits of greater cardamom (Amomum subulatum) were fractionated into three fractions, the dichloromethane extract, and the ethyl acetate-soluble and water-soluble fractions of the 70% aqueous acetone extract. The ethyl acetate-soluble fraction showed a high radical-scavenging activity against 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH). Four compounds were isolated from the ethyl acetate-soluble fraction, and their structures were ascribed to protocatechualdehyde (1), protocatechuic acid (2), 1,7-bis(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)hepta-4E,6E-dien-3-one (3) and 2,3,7-trihydroxy-5-(3,4-dihydroxy-E-styryl)-6,7,8,9-tetrahydro-5H-benzocycloheptene (4) on the basis of spectroscopic evidence. This is the first isolation of these compounds from greater cardamom. In particular, 4 was a new type of cyclic diarylheptanoid. DPPH radical-scavenging activity of these compounds was measured by colorimetric analysis. Compounds 1 and 3 showed stronger activity than such natural antioxidants as alpha-tocopherol and L-ascorbic acid. Compounds 2 and 4 were comparable to alpha-tocopherol and L-ascorbic acid.     

Dietary (+)-catechin and BHT markedly increase alpha-tocopherol concentrations in rats by a tocopherol-omega-hydroxylase-independent mechanism

The effects of dietary (+)-catechin (CAT) and BHT on plasma and tissue concentrations of alpha-tocopherol (alpha-T), gamma-tocopherol (gamma-T) and cholesterol (C) were studied in male Sprague-Dawley rats. The rats were fed the compounds during a 4-wk period at concentrations of 2 g/kg in standardized diets, low but adequate in vitamin E, with 2 g/kg cholesterol. The CAT-regimen did not affect weight gain, feed intake or organ weights. BHT did not affect feed intake but lowered the body weight and the amount of liver lipids and increased the weights of livers and lungs relative to the body weight. Rats consuming CAT had 2.5-3.5-fold increased plasma, liver and lung alpha-T concentrations, but C concentrations remained unchanged. BHT-feeding resulted in 2.4- and 1.7-fold elevation in alpha-T but approximately 50% decrease in gamma-T concentrations in blood plasma and liver, respectively. BHT also lowered total C in the liver without affecting the concentration of C in the liver lipids. To investigate whether the alpha-T-sparing action of the studied compounds was due to the inhibition of tocopherol-omega-hydroxylase, HepG2 cells were incubated with CAT or BHT in the presence of delta-tocopherol (delta-T) and the 3'- and 5'-delta-carboxychromanol metabolites in the media were analyzed by GC/MS. Neither CAT nor BHT inhibited tocopherol-omega-hydroxylase activity in hepatocyte cultures; CAT was also inactive in a rat microsomal assay. In conclusion, both dietary CAT and BHT markedly increased alpha-T concentrations in plasma and organs of Sprague-Dawley rats by a mechanism that apparently does not involve inhibition of tocopherol-omega-hydroxylase, a key enzyme in tocopherol catabolism.     

Composition and safety analysis of Chinese traditional fermented soybean paste made by transgenic soybean

The traditional Chinese soybean paste was produced by cooked transgenic soybean fermentation with the composition of moisture 53%, amino acid 0.84% (calculated by nitrogen), votive sugar 6.21% and total acid 1.66%. A number of microorganism species were isolated and identified, including fungi and bacteria, and the bacterium species Rhizopus oryzae Went and Prinsen Geerligs were dominant in transgenic soybean paste. The results showed that the transgenic soybean paste contain abundant amino acids and vitamins (vitamin A, 42.87 IU; vitamin B, 10.31 mg; vitamin B, 20.64 mg; nicotinamide, 2.54 mg; pantothenic acid, 0.63 mg; vitamin B, 6,847 microg; folic acid, 105 microg; vitamin B, 123.85 microg; and biotin, 56.34 microg). Pathogenic microorganisms were not be detected in the transgenic fermented soybean paste.     

Aflatoxin B1 DNA-Adducts in Hepatocellular Carcinoma from a Low Exposure Area

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a class 1 carcinogen with an ascertained role in the development of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in high exposure areas. Instead, this study aimed to assay whether chronic/intermittent, low-dose AFB1 consumption might occur in low-exposure geographical areas, ultimately accumulating in the liver and possibly contributing to liver cancer. AFB1-DNA adducts were assayed by immunostaining in liver tissues from three Italian series of twenty cirrhosis without HCC, 131 HCC, and 45 cholangiocarcinoma, and in an AFB1-induced HCC rat model. CD68, TP53 immunostaining, and TP53 RFLP analysis of R249S transversion were used to characterize cell populations displaying AFB1-DNA adducts. Twenty-five HCCs displayed AFB1-adducts both in neoplastic hepatocytes and in cells infiltrating the tumor and non-tumor tissues. Nuclear immunostaining was observed in a few cases, while most cases showed cytoplasmic immunostaining, especially in CD68-positive tumor-infiltrating cells, suggestive for phagocytosis of dead hepatocytes. Similar patterns were observed in AFB1-induced rat HCC, though with higher intensity. Cholangiocarcinoma and cirrhosis without HCC did not displayAFB1-adducts, except for one case. Despite not providing a causal relationship with HCC, these findings still suggest paying attention to detection and control measures for aflatoxins to ensure food safety in low exposure areas.     

伏马菌素与黄曲霉毒素对SD大鼠联合毒性的研究

目的探讨伏马菌素 B_1(fumonisin B_1,FB_1)和黄曲霉毒素 B_1(aflatoxin B_1,AFB_1)对SD 大鼠的联合毒性作用。方法雄性 SD 大鼠按体重分为5组,每组12只,分别灌胃给予受试物(100μg/kg bw FB_1、100μg/kg bw AFB_1、100μg/kg bw FB_1+100μg/kg bw AFB_1、50μg/kg bw FB_1+50μg/kg bw AFB_1、蒸馏水),连续灌胃30d,观察动物的生长发育、食物利用情况、血液学、血生化指标及脏器组织病理学的改变情况。结果实验结束时100μg/kg bw FB_1+100μg/kg bw AFB_1组体重增重为(164.9±19.8)g,食物利用率为(25.3±1.6)%,低于实验对照组体重增重为(203.7±17.1)g,食物利用率为(28.1±1.2)%,也低于其余各实验组(P<0.05),而其余各染毒组与实验对照组间的差异无统计学意义(P>0.05);各实验组动物肝功能指标血清丙氨酸氨基转移酶(ALT)、天冬氨酸氨基转移酶(AST)、γ-谷氨酰胺转移酶(γ-GT)水平升高,且 FB_1+AFB_1组的升高程度较单独给予 FB_1和 AFB_1严重;同时 FB_1+AFB_1高剂量组动物肝脏、肾脏重量降低,肝脏出现明显病理变化,血清中超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)活力降低,丙二醛(MDA)水平升高等。结论两种真菌毒素存在联合毒性作用。本研究结果为进一步探讨两种真菌毒素同时暴露对人群健康的危害与联合作用。     

Antioxidant and antimutagenic activities of Cinnamomum zeylanicum fruit extracts

Recently, a number of studies on the health benefits associated with natural compounds have been demonstrated. Phenolics in fruits, vegetables, herbs and spices possess potent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimutagenic and anticarcinogenic activities. In the present study, the dried fruits of cinnamon were extracted with ethyl acetate, acetone, methanol and water using a Soxhlet extractor. The total phenolics content of the extracts as determined by Folin–Ciocalteu method were found to be the highest in water extract (44.5%) and the lowest in ethyl acetate (14.4%). The antioxidant activity (AA) of the extracts was evaluated through in vitro model systems such as β-carotene-linoleate, and 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl hydrazyl (DPPH); the antimutagenicity of these extracts was also assayed against the mutagenicity of sodium azide by Ames test using tester strain of Salmonella typhimurium (TA100) at different concentrations. In both the model systems, the AA of the extracts was found in the order of water>methanol>acetone>ethyl acetate. All the extracts decreased sodium azide mutagenicity in S. typhimurium strain (TA100). At 5000 μg/plate all the extracts showed strong antimutagenicity. The antimutagenicity of water extract was followed by acetone, methanol and ethyl acetate. The results of the present study indicate that under-utilized and unconventional part of cinnamon is a good source of antioxidant and antimutagenic phenolics.     

Protective effects of methanol extracts from Cladonia rangiformis and Umbilicaria vellea against known mutagens sodium azide and 9-aminoacridine

Lichens and their various extracts have been occasionally used in the treatment of many diseases. Cladonia rangiformis and Umbilicaria vellea are two important species of these lichens and they have several biological activities. In the present study, methanol extracts of these lichens, which are grown in the Eastern Anatolia Region of Turkey, were isolated, and their mutagenic and antimutagenic properties were investigated by using AMES-Salmonella and Zea mays Root Tip Mitotic Index mutagenicity and antimutagenicity assay systems. Known mutagens sodium azide (NaN(3)) and 9-Aminoacridine (9-AA) were used to determine antimutagenic properties of methanol extracts. The results showed that all methanol extracts, investigated in the present study, can be considered genotoxically safe because they do not have mutagenic activity at the tested concentrations. Besides, all of them have antimutagenic activity against 9-AA known as a model intercalator agent in the AMES-Salmonella test system. The inhibition rates obtained from the antimutagenicity assays ranged from 37.07% (C. rangiformis-5 μg/plate) to 54.39% (C. rangiformis-5 μg/plate). Furthermore, all the methanol extracts have significant antimutagenic activity against NaN(3) mutagenicity in Z. mays Root Tip Mitotic Index assay system. These activities are valuable towards an extension of the employ of these drugs as new phytotherapeutic or preservative ingredients.     

大豆异黄酮对去势大鼠骨量丢失的抑制作用研究

目的:研究大豆异黄酮(Soybeanisoflavone,SI)对去势后大鼠由于体内雌激素水平下降引起的骨量丢失的抑制作用。方法:腹腔手术切除大鼠双侧卵巢,分为对照组、SI组和雌激素对照组,并设假手术对照组,喂养16w后,测定雌二醇、骨生化指标、骨密度、骨钙、骨磷等指标,扫描电镜和组化分析观察骨小梁微观结构的变化。结果:SI显著降低血清中骨吸收指标TRAP活性,同时明显提高骨形成指标BGP含量;SI具有弱雌激素作用,可抑制去卵巢大鼠体内雌激素水平的下降,骨密度和骨钙、骨磷含量增加,松质骨的骨丢失得到抑制。结论:SI可降低骨吸收、促进骨形成,对去卵巢引起的骨量丢失有明显的抑制作用。     

Uptake, translocation, and transformation of pentachlorophenol in soybean and spinach plants

Soybean plants were grown for 90 days and spinach plants for 64 days in a mixture of sterilized greenhouse soil and sand containing 10 ppm pentachlorophenol. All plant parts and soil samples were extracted and separated into nonpolar and polar fractions. Major nonpolar and polar metabolites were identified by gas-liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry. Nonpolar fractions from both soybean and spinach plants were found to contain pentachlorophenol and its metabolites, 2,3,4,6-tetrachlorophenol, methoxytetrachlorophenol, 2,3,4,6-tetrachloroanisole, and pentachloroanisole. Cleavage of polar metabolites from the soybean plants by acid hydrolysis yielded organic solvent-extractable products. These products were identified as pentachlorophenol, 2,3,4,6-tetrachlorophenol, and methoxytetrachlorophenol. Cleavage of polar materials from spinach plants yielded only pentachlorophenol. The polar metabolites from the soybean plants were also subjected to enzymatic cleavage by beta-glucosidase. The conjugates consisted mostly of O-glucosides of the same metabolites released by acid hydrolysis. Failure of hydrolysis by aryl sulfatase indicated that very little or no sulfates were present. The metabolites found in the plants were not detected in soil samples obtained from pots immediately after the plants were harvested.     

Interaction between certain moulds and aflatoxin B1 producer Aspergillus flavus NRRL 3251

The objective of this study was to evaluate biotic interaction between some mould species and active producer of aflatoxin B1 Aspergillus flavus NRRL 3251, co-cultured in yeast-extract sucrose (YES) broth. Twenty-five mould strains of Alternaria spp., Cladosporium spp., Mucor spp., A. flavus and A. niger, used as biocompetitive agents, were isolated from outdoor and indoor airborne fungi, scrapings of mouldy household walls, and from stored and post-harvest maize. Aflatoxin B1 was extracted from mould biomasses with chloroform and detected using the multitoxin TLC method. The results confirm antagonistic interaction between all strains tested. With Alternaria spp. and Cladosporium spp., aflatoxin B1 production decreased 100%, compared to detection in a single culture of A. flavus NRRL 3251 (Cmean=18.7 microg mL-1). In mixed cultures with Mucor spp., aflatoxin B1 levels dropped to (5.6-9.3) microg mL-1, and the inhibition was from 50% to 70%. Four of five aflatoxin non-producing strains of A. flavus interfered with aflatoxin production in mixed culture, and reduced AFB1 productivity by 100%. One strain showed a lower efficacy in inhibiting AFB1 production (80%) with a detectable amount of AFB1 3.7 microg mL-1 when compared to control. A decrease in toxin production was also observed in dual cultivation with A. niger strains. It resulted in 100% reduction in three strains), 90% reduction in one strain (Cmean=1.9 microg mL-1) and 80% reduction in one strain (Cmean=3.7 microg mL-1) inhibition.     

Fate of effluent organic matter during soil aquifer treatment: biodegradability, chlorine reactivity and genotoxicity

Hydrophobic acid (HPO-A) and transphilic acid (TPI-A) fractions of dissolved organic matter (DOM) were isolated from a domestic secondary wastewater effluent that was polished via soil aquifer treatment (SAT). Fractions were isolated using XAD resin adsorption chromatography from samples obtained along the vadose zone flowpath at a full-scale basin recharge facility in Tucson, Arizona. Changes in isolate character during SAT were established via biodegradability (batch test), specific ultraviolet light absorbance (SUVA), trihalomethane formation potential (THMFP), and Ames mutagenicity assays. The dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentration decreased by >90% during SAT. A significant fraction (up to 20%) of isolated post-SAT HPO-A was biodegradable. The (apparent) refractory nature of DOM that survives SAT may be a consequence of low DOC concentration in groundwater as well as the nature of the compounds themselves. Specific THMFP (microg THM per mg DOC) of HPO-A and TPI-A varied little as a consequence of SAT, averaging 52 and 49 microg THM per mg DOC, respectively. The nonbiodegradable fractions of HPO-A and TPI-A exhibited higher reactivities: 89 and 95 microg THM per mg DOC, respectively. Genotoxicity of HPO-A (on a per mass basis) increased after SAT, suggesting that responsible compounds are removed less efficiently than bulk organics during vadose zone transport.