Intracardiac renin-angiotensin system and myocardial repair/remodeling following infarction

The circulating renin-angiotensin system (RAS) is a classic endocrine system that regulates cardiovascular homeostasis during physiologic and pathologic states. Accumulated evidence has shown the presence of components of RAS in various tissues, which are upregulated in certain pathological conditions. Locally produced angiotensin (Ang)II may play an important role in tissue repair/remodeling in autocrine and/or paracrine manners. Following acute myocardial infarction (MI), cardiac repair occurs in the infarcted myocardium and structural remodeling is developed in noninfarcted myocardium, which are accompanied by activated cardiac RAS. In this review, the current understanding of independent activation of cardiac RAS and its regulation in the pathogenesis of myocardial repair/remodeling after MI is discussed.     

Beneficial effects of exogenous tetrahydrobiopterin on left ventricular remodeling after myocardial infarction in rats

Background Reactive oxygen species (ROS) is deeply involved in the process of ventricular remodeling after myocardial infarction (MI). Under oxidative stress, endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) can be converted to a ROS generator, because a relative lack of tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4), an essential cofactor for NO synthesis, leads to eNOS uncoupling. The uncoupled eNOS generates superoxide rather than NO. The possible role of ROS generated by eNOS in ventricular remodeling after MI was investigated. Methods and Results Rats were treated with oral BH4 supplementation starting at 3 days before coronary artery ligation. At 4 weeks after MI, there was augmented superoxide production in association with reduced BH4/dihydrobiopterin (BH2) ratio and eNOS dimer/monomer protein ratio in the heart. Treatment with BH4 increased BH4/BH2 ratio and eNOS dimer/monomer ratio, and decreased superoxide production. In BH4-treated MI rats, left ventricular size was smaller, thickness of the non-infarcted posterior wall was thinner, and cardiac function was preserved compared with the control MI rats. Conclusions The present study suggested that ventricular remodeling process after MI leads to BH4 oxidation and resulted in uncoupled eNOS-derived superoxide generation, which further augmented the remodeling process and deteriorated cardiac function. (Circ J 2008; 72: 1512 - 1519).     

心肌梗死后心脏修复与心肌细胞再生的研究进展

心肌梗死后组织缺血缺氧,坏死,导致一个多相的修复过程,受损的组织由成纤维细胞和肌成纤维细胞产生纤维瘢痕所取代。非梗死的心室壁反应性重塑,包括间质和血管周围纤维化,导致心室壁几何、生物力学、生化等发生改变。虽然最初的修复性纤维化对防止心室壁破裂至关重要,但是过度的纤维化反应导致心功能进行性损害,最终导致心功能衰竭。近年来研究表明,心脏具有可塑性,恢复受损心脏功能,促进梗死心肌修复是心血管疾病治疗的重要目标。为此,人们不断探索新的治疗手段,再生治疗给心肌梗死治疗带来了新的希望,本文对目前心肌梗死的修复性及反应心肌纤维化的机制进行总结,探讨诱导成纤维细胞和肌成纤维细胞转化为心肌细胞,以及心肌细胞再生的潜力,对目前现有和未来抑制心肌纤维化治疗策略进行综述。     

Cardiomyocyte mineralocorticoid receptor function post myocardial infarction

Clinical trials have clearly demonstrated that mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) blockade improves outcome in patients with chronic systolic heart failure and left ventricular dysfunction after myocardial infarction; however, the underlying mechanisms as well as the cell-specific functional role of MR activation are still under investigation. Extrarenal effects of MR blockade on cardiovascular extracellular matrix turnover and oxidative stress, on myocardial structural and electrical remodeling, and on sympathoadrenergic stimulation, platelet activation, endothelial dysfunction, and macrophage polarization appear to be important mechanisms. Recent scientific advances, involving mice with cardiomyocyte-restricted inactivation of the MR gene suggest that the clinical benefits of MR blocking therapy in myocardial infarction and heart failure are mediated largely via cardiomyocyte-dependent mechanisms, and they provide strong evidence that more favorable effects on cardiac dysfunction and failure can be achieved by early initiation of MR blockade postinfarction.     

Treatment with dimethylthiourea prevents left ventricular remodeling and failure after experimental myocardial infarction in mice: role of oxidative stress

Oxidative stress might play an important role in the progression of left ventricular (LV) remodeling and failure that occur after myocardial infarction (MI). We determined whether reactive oxygen species (ROS) are increased in the LV remodeling and failure in experimental MI with the use of electron spin resonance spectroscopy and whether the long-term administration of dimethylthiourea (DMTU), hydroxyl radical (.OH) scavenger, could attenuate these changes. We studied 3 groups of mice: sham-operated (sham), MI, and MI animals that received DMTU (MI+DMTU). Drugs were administered to the animals daily via intraperitoneal injection for 4 weeks.OH was increased in the noninfarcted myocardium from MI animals, which was abolished in MI+DMTU. Fractional shortening was depressed by 65%, LV chamber diameter was increased by 53%, and the thickness of noninfarcted myocardium was increased by 37% in MI. MI+DMTU animals had significantly better LV contractile function and smaller increases in LV chamber size and hypertrophy than MI animals. Changes in myocyte cross-sectional area determined with LV mid-free wall specimens were concordant with the wall thickness data. Collagen volume fraction of the noninfarcted myocardium showed significant increases in the MI, which were also attenuated with DMTU. Myocardial matrix metalloproteinase-2 activity, measured with gelatin zymography, was increased with MI after 7 and 28 days, which was attenuated in MI+DMTU. Thus, the attenuation of increased myocardial ROS and metalloproteinase activity with DMTU may contribute, at least in part, to its beneficial effects on LV remodeling and failure. Therapies designed to interfere with oxidative stress might be beneficial to prevent myocardial failure.     

Stem cell factor receptor induces progenitor and natural killer cell-mediated cardiac survival and repair after myocardial infarction

Inappropriate cardiac remodeling and repair after myocardial infarction (MI) predisposes to heart failure. Studies have reported on the potential for lineage negative, steel factor positive (c-kit+) bone marrow-derived hematopoetic stem/progenitor cells (HSPCs) to repair damaged myocardium through neovascularization and myogenesis. However, the precise contribution of the c-kit signaling pathway to the cardiac repair process has yet to be determined. In this study, we sought to directly elucidate the mechanistic contributions of c-kit+ bone marrow-derived hematopoetic stem/progenitor cells in the maintenance and repair of damaged myocardium after MI. Using c-kit-deficient mice, we demonstrate the importance of c-kit signaling in preventing ventricular dilation and hypertrophy, and the maintenance of cardiac function after MI in c-kit-deficient mice. Furthermore, we show phenotypic rescue of cardiac repair after MI of c-kit-deficient mice by bone marrow transplantation of wild-type HSPCs. The transplanted group also had reduced apoptosis and collagen deposition, along with an increase in neovascularization. To better understand the mechanisms underlying this phenotypic rescue, we investigated the gene expression pattern within the infarcted region by using microarray analysis. This analysis suggested activation of inflammatory pathways, specifically natural killer (NK) cell-mediated mobilization after MI in rescued hearts. This finding was confirmed by immunohistology and by using an NK blocker. Thus, our investigation revealed a previously uncharacterized role for c-kit signaling after infarction by mediating bone marrow-derived NK and angiogenic cell mobilization, which contributes to improved remodeling and cardiac function after MI.     

Effects of the calcineurin dependent signaling pathway inhibition by cyclosporin A on early and late cardiac remodeling following myocardial infarction

BACKGROUND: The calcineurin-mediated signaling pathway has been implicated as one of the crucial pathways in cardiac hypertrophy. However, the role of calcineurin pathway on cardiac remodeling after myocardial infarction (MI) has not been well defined. METHODS: Infarcted rats (n = 45) were randomized into calcineurin inhibitor, cyclosporin A (CsA) or vehicle groups, 3 days after MI and treated for 2 weeks (early post-MI cardiac remodeling stage), or randomized 17 days after MI and treated for 2 weeks (late remodeling stage). RESULTS: Calcineurin pathway inhibition during the early cardiac remodeling stage attenuated the myocardial hypertrophy after MI (P < 0.05). However, left ventricular dimensions were further increased and fractional shortening deteriorated with calcineurin inhibition during this stage (P < 0.05, each). During late remodeling stage, CsA treatment did not affect myocardial hypertrophy and cardiac dilation following MI. CONCLUSION: Our results strongly support the hypothesis that calcineurin pathway mediates compensatory myocardial hypertrophy during the early remodeling stage after MI. However, the calcineurin pathway does not seem to affect the late remodeling after MI.     

Transforming growth factor-beta blockade down-regulates the renin-angiotensin system and modifies cardiac remodeling after myocardial infarction

After myocardial infarction (MI), the heart may undergo progressive ventricular remodeling, resulting in a deterioration of cardiac function. TGF-beta is a key cytokine that both initiates and terminates tissue repair, and its sustained production underlies the development of tissue fibrosis, particularly after MI. We investigated the effects of a novel orally active specific inhibitor of the TGF-beta receptor 1 (SD-208) in an experimental model of MI. Mice underwent ligation of the left coronary artery to induce MI and were subsequently treated for 30 d after infarction with either SD-208 or a vehicle control. Blockade of TGF-beta signaling reduced mean arterial pressure in all groups. SD-208 treatment after MI resulted in a trend for reduced ventricular and renal gene expression of TGF-beta-activated kinase-1 (a downstream modulator of TGF-beta signaling) and a significant decrease in collagen 1, in association with a marked decrease in cardiac mass. Post-MI SD-208 treatment significantly reduced circulating levels of plasma renin activity as well as down-regulating the components of the cardiac and renal renin-angiotensin system (angiotensinogen, angiotensin converting enzyme, and angiotensin II type I receptor). Our findings indicate that blockade of the TGF-beta signaling pathway results in significant amelioration of deleterious cardiac remodeling after infarction.     

Improved post-myocardial infarction survival with probucol in rats: effects on left ventricular function, morphology, cardiac oxidative stress and cytokine expression.

OBJECTIVES: The goal of this study was to evaluate whether reducing the potentially deleterious effects of oxidative stress with the potent anti-oxidant probucol improves prognosis after myocardial infarction (MI) in rats. BACKGROUND: Oxidative stress has been documented in patients early and late after MI, particularly when it is associated with congestive heart failure. METHODS: Rats surviving acute MIs for 24 h (n = 247) were assigned to vehicle or probucol (61 mg/kg, daily) for four weeks, at which time cardiac hemodynamic, morphologic and molecular measurements were done. RESULTS: In rats with large MIs, probucol improved survival (87.9%) when compared with vehicle (50.6%) (p < 0.001). Probucol also partially preserved left ventricular (LV) systolic but not diastolic function. Probucol increased scar thickness and decreased cardiac fibrosis but did not modify LV hypertrophy or dilation. Finally, probucol decreased cardiac oxidative stress, as assessed by measuring cardiac malondialdehydes, and decreased the cardiac expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-1beta and IL-6 but did not modify fetal gene re-expression in rats with large MIs. CONCLUSIONS: This study indicates that the anti-oxidant probucol markedly improves post-MI survival in rats despite few demonstrable effects on cardiac remodeling or hemodynamics. Its beneficial effects may, however, be associated with reduced cardiac fibrosis, oxidative stress and expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines.     

Involvement of Nox2 NADPH oxidase in adverse cardiac remodeling after myocardial infarction

Oxidative stress plays an important role in the development of cardiac remodeling after myocardial infarction (MI), but the sources of oxidative stress remain unclear. We investigated the role of Nox2-containing reduced nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase in the development of cardiac remodeling after MI. Adult Nox2(-/-) and matched wild-type (WT) mice were subjected to coronary artery ligation and studied 4 weeks later. Infarct size after MI was similar in Nox2(-/-) and WT mice. Nox2(-/-) mice exhibited significantly less left ventricular (LV) cavity dilatation and dysfunction after MI than WT mice (eg, echocardiographic LV end-diastolic volume: 75.7+/-5.8 versus 112.4+/-12.3 microL; ejection fraction: 41.6+/-3.7 versus 32.9+/-3.2%; both P<0.05). Similarly, in vivo LV systolic and diastolic functions were better preserved in Nox2(-/-) than WT mice (eg, LV dP/dt(max): 7969+/-385 versus 5746+/-234 mm Hg/s; LV end-diastolic pressure: 12.2+/-1.3 versus 18.0+/-1.8 mm Hg; both P<0.05). Nox2(-/-) mice exhibited less cardiomyocyte hypertrophy, apoptosis, and interstitial fibrosis; reduced increases in expression of connective tissue growth factor and procollagen 1 mRNA; and smaller increases in myocardial matrix metalloproteinase-2 activity than WT mice. These data suggest that the Nox2-containing reduced nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase contributes significantly to the processes underlying adverse cardiac remodeling and contractile dysfunction post-MI.     

High dose aspirin and left ventricular remodeling after myocardial infarction

Background Proinflammatory proteins like inflammatory cytokines are implicated in myocardial depression and left ventricular remodeling after myocardial infarction. High-dose aspirin inhibits cytokine activation. Therefore, we tested the influence of high-dose aspirin treatment on left ventricular remodeling in mice after myocardial infarction. Methods and results Mice were treated for 4 weeks with placebo or aspirin (120 mg/kg per day) by Alzet mini-osmotic pumps after ligation of the left anterior descending coronary artery. Serial transthoracic echocardiography was performed at days 1, 7, and 28. Over the 4 weeks, mortality was not different between the groups (placebo 30.8%, aspirin 30.8%). On echocardiography, animals after myocardial infarction exhibited left ventricular dilatation (week 4, end-systolic area, placebo sham 8.9 ± 1.7 vs. placebo MI 15.9 ± 2.5 mm²), which was not changed by aspirin treatment (week 4, end-systolic area, aspirin MI 14.5 ± 1.3 mm², p= ns vs. placebo MI). The expression of the proinflammatory cytokines TNF and IL-1β were markedly upregulated in mice with myocardial infarction on placebo. Cytokine expression was significantly reduced by aspirin treatment while collagen deposition was not influenced. Conclusion Continuous aspirin treatment (120 mg/kg/d) reduces the expression of proinflammatory cytokines after myocardial infarction, but does not affect post-infarct cardiac remodeling and cardiac function.     

卡维地洛对心梗大鼠远期心室重构的影响及其作用机制

目的:探讨卡维地洛(Carv)对心肌梗死(MI)大鼠心室心肌重构的影响及其作用机制。方法:结扎30只大鼠左冠状动脉建立MI模型后,随机分为Carv组(n=15)及MI组(n=15)。再另设假手术(Sham)组(n=15)。Carv组给予Carv(日剂量2 mg/kg),分2次灌胃;Sham组及MI组均给予等量蒸馏水灌胃。24周后,观察心室重构和左室非梗死区心肌内4-羟基壬烯醛(4-HNE)和过氧化物丙二醛(MDA)的含量及表达。结果:24周后,超声显示,与Sham组比较,MI组大鼠心功能明显降低,左室舒张末期内径(LVEDD)明显增大,左室短轴缩短率(FS)和心脏射血分数(EF)明显降低(P0.05,P0.01)。MI组大鼠左室非梗死区心肌内4-HNE和MDA的含量明显增加,表达明显增强(P0.05,P0.01)。Carv组大鼠左室非梗死区心肌组内4-HNE和MDA的含量比MI组明显降低(P0.05,P0.01)。结论:MI 6月后,心肌内4-HNE、MDA的活性仍然较高,氧化应激反应仍持续,Carv可以促进活性醛的代谢,对心脏具有保护作用,可改善预后。     

Oxidative stress in heart failure: what are we missing?

Over the past several decades, investigations in humans and animal models of heart failure (HF) have provided substantial evidence that oxidative stress is increased in HF and contributes to disease progression. The high metabolic activity of cardiac myocytes makes these cells active sources of reactive oxygen species. Work in cell and animal models clearly demonstrates that oxidative stress activates processes such as changes in gene expression and cell death that are now accepted components of myocardial remodeling and HF. Antioxidants prevent progressive remodeling and even improve cardiac function in animal models of HF. It is therefore disappointing that to date no antioxidant strategy has translated to a therapeutic in the HF clinic. Possible explanations, including inadequate appreciation of the critical disease-modifying sources of reactive oxygen species, the choice of the wrong antioxidant strategy, or incomplete understanding of individual variability in human antioxidant defenses in this brief review.     

Loss of fibulin-2 protects against progressive ventricular dysfunction after myocardial infarction

Remodeling of the cardiac extracellular matrix (ECM) is an integral part of wound healing and ventricular adaptation after myocardial infarction (MI), but the underlying mechanisms remain incompletely understood. Fibulin-2 is an ECM protein upregulated during cardiac development and skin wound healing, yet mice lacking fibulin-2 do not display any identifiable phenotypic abnormalities. To investigate the effects of fibulin-2 deficiency on ECM remodeling after MI, we induced experimental MI by permanent coronary artery ligation in both fibulin-2 null and wild-type mice. Fibulin-2 expression was up-regulated at the infarct border zone of the wild-type mice. Acute myocardial tissue responses after MI, including inflammatory cell infiltration and ECM protein synthesis and deposition in the infarct border zone, were markedly attenuated in the fibulin-2 null mice. However, the fibulin-2 null mice had significantly better survival rate after MI compared to the wild-type mice as a result of less frequent cardiac rupture and preserved left ventricular function. Up-regulation of TGF-β signaling and ECM remodeling after MI were attenuated in both ischemic and non-ischemic myocardium of the fibulin-2 null mice compared to the wild type counterparts. Increase in TGF-β signaling in response to angiotensin II was also lessened in cardiac fibroblasts isolated from the fibulin-2 null mice. The studies provide the first evidence that absence of fibulin-2 results in decreased up-regulation of TGF-β signaling after MI and protects against ventricular dysfunction, suggesting that fibulin-2 may be a potential therapeutic target for attenuating the progression of ventricular remodeling.     

Left ventricular remodeling after myocardial infarction in mice with targeted deletion of the NADPH oxidase subunit gp91PHOX

Background Oxidative stress is involved in progression of left ventricular hypertrophy and heart failure. Since NADPH oxidases are a major source of reactive oxygen species in the heart, we studied left ventricular remodeling after myocardial infarction in mice with targeted deletion of the NADPH oxidase subunit gp91^phox. Methods and results gp91^phox knockout (KO) and wild–type (WT) animals underwent coronary artery ligation. Mortality was significant higher in the gp91^phox KO mice. However, transthoracic echocardiography performed at days 1, 7, and 56 at mid–papillary levels revealed that progression of left ventricular remodeling was not influenced by the genotype. Moreover, systemic oxidative stress was not reduced in gp91^phox KO mice as indicated by a significant increase in lipid peroxides potentially mediated by an increase of the NADPH subunit nox–1 in gp91^phox KO mice. Conclusion Targeted deletion of the NADPH subunit gp91^phox does not affect left ventricular remodeling following myocardial infarction and does not decrease the production of oxidative stress. However, the final role of the different NADPH subunits in the heart under pathophysiologic conditions remains to be determined.     

川芎嗪对心肌梗死大鼠交感神经重构的抑制作用及其机制

目的探讨川芎嗪是否拮抗氧化应激并减轻心肌梗死(MI)后交感神经重构。方法将40只成年雄性Sprague-Dawley大鼠随机分为对照组(n=10)、模型组(n=15)和治疗组(n=15),后两组采用结扎左前降支的方法制作MI模型,对照组行假手术。治疗组术后24 h腹腔注射川芎嗪注射液120 mg/kg,每天1次,连续6周;另两组腹腔内注射等量生理盐水。术后6周行多普勒心脏彩超检查测定心脏指标,检测血浆超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)和丙二醛(MDA)含量;检测大鼠MI边缘区酪氨酸羟化酶(TH)阳性神经纤维密度,并对氧化应激与交感神经重构程度进行相关分析。结果模型组左心室舒张期末内径(LVEDD)和左心室收缩期末内径(LVESD)均高于对照组,射血分数(EF)、短轴缩短率(FS)均低于对照组(P0.05);治疗组LVEDD、LVESD均低于模型组,EF、FS均高于模型组(P0.05)。治疗组血浆SOD含量高于模型组(P0.05),MDA含量低于模型组(P0.01)。模型组TH阳性神经纤维密度明显高于对照组,治疗组TH阳性神经纤维密度明显低于模型组(P0.01)。MDA/SOD与TH阳性神经纤维密度存在直线相关(r=0.909,P0.01)。结论川芎嗪抑制MI后交感神经重构,与其拮抗氧化应激作用密切相关。川芎嗪抑制MI后交感神经重构为减少MI后室性心律失常提供新的治疗思路。     

Prevention of late postmyocardial infarction left ventricular remodeling: An update

Cardiac remodeling remains an important primary therapeutic target in patients with myocardial infarction (MI) and chronic heart failure. It also has utility as a reliable surrogate for clinical outcomes. The past three decades of research have demonstrated the importance of cardiac remodeling as a basic mechanism in the progression of heart failure. Novel therapeutic advances have allowed more patients to survive acute MI. Strategies to prevent or halt adverse left ventricular remodeling have included pharmacotherapy, percutaneous interventions, device-based therapies, and surgical procedures. More recently, experimental research has added opportunities for novel approaches to prevent and reverse cardiac remodeling. This review summarizes the effects of current and future therapeutic strategies on left ventricular remodeling and dysfunction after MI.     

Kallikrein gene delivery improves cardiac reserve and attenuates remodeling after myocardial infarction

In this study, we used the somatic gene delivery approach to explore the role of the kallikrein-kinin system (KKS) in cardiac remodeling and apoptosis after myocardial infarction (MI). Rats were subjected to coronary artery ligation to induce MI, and adenovirus carrying the human tissue kallikrein or luciferase gene was injected into the tail vein at 1 week after surgery. Cardiac output gradually decreased from 2 to 6 weeks after MI, whereas delivery of the kallikrein gene prevented this decrease. Cardiac responses to dobutamine-induced stress were improved in rats receiving kallikrein gene as compared with rats receiving control virus at 6 weeks after MI. Kallikrein significantly improved cardiac remodeling by decreasing collagen density, cardiomyocyte size, and left ventricular internal perimeter and increasing capillary density in the heart at 6 weeks after MI. Kallikrein gene transfer attenuated myocardial apoptosis, which was positively correlated with remodeling parameters in the heart at 2 weeks after MI. Endothelial dysfunction, characterized by increased vascular resistance, decreased left ventricular blood flow, and decreased cardiac nitric oxide levels, existed in remodeled hearts at 2 weeks after MI, whereas kallikrein gene transfer improved these parameters. Kallikrein gene delivery improved cell survival parameters as shown by increased phospho-Akt and reduced caspase-3 activation at 2 weeks after MI. This study indicates that the kallikrein-kinin system plays an important role in preventing the progression of heart failure by attenuating cardiac hypertrophy and fibrosis, improving endothelial function, and inhibiting myocardial apoptosis through the Akt-mediated signaling pathway.     

辛伐他汀对家兔心肌梗死后心室重构及心功能的影响

目的研究辛伐他汀对家兔心肌梗死后(MI)心室重构及心功能的影响。方法家兔20只采用结扎冠状动脉左前降支的方法建立急性心肌梗死模型,随机分MI组(10只)和辛伐他汀组(10只)。MI组术后不给任何处理和干预,辛伐他汀干预组在MI术后3d口服辛伐他汀(10mg.kg-1.d-1)10周。术前和术后10周进行超声心动图检查。术后10周进行有创血液动力学测定,而后摘取心脏称重。取两组家兔左心室进行HE染色,做组织细胞学检查。结果10周后辛伐他汀组家兔左室重量、左室舒张期末径、左室收缩期末径、左房直径及左室舒张期末压显著低于MI组,射血分数、缩短分数明显高于MI组(P<0.05)。HE染色辛伐他汀组与MI组比较,心肌细胞变性坏死明显减轻,炎性细胞浸润减少,间质纤维化减轻,非梗死区心肌细胞的代偿性肥大增生较MI组为低。结论辛伐他汀能够改善心肌梗死后家兔心室重构和心功能。