From the Garden of Eden to the land of plenty. Restriction of fruit and sweets intake leads to increased fruit and sweets consumption in children

Overweight is increasing rapidly in children, compelling researchers to seek for determinants of adverse food intake. In a previous experiment it was found that manipulating the restriction of attractive snacks increased the desirability and intake of these snacks. In the present study, we tested whether this paradoxical restricting effect is also seen in relatively less attractive but healthy food, i.e. fruit. Will fruit become more desirable through restriction, and will children eat more forbidden fruit than non-forbidden fruit? Two groups of young children were forbidden to eat fruits and sweets, respectively, whereas a control group was invited to eat everything. Desire for sweets remained high in the sweets-prohibition condition, whereas it decreased in the fruit-prohibition and no-prohibition conditions. No group differences were found regarding the desire for fruit. With respect to intake, children in both the fruit- and the sweets-prohibition condition consumed more of the formerly forbidden food during a taste session as compared to the no-prohibition condition. In addition, total food intake was higher in the two prohibition conditions than in the no-prohibition condition. These data indicate that the adverse effects of restriction apply to both attractive unhealthy and relatively less attractive but healthy food.     

Validation of the 24-hour dietary recall in preschool children

The results of the current study indicate that data obtained by the dietary recall correlate highly with the children's weighed food intake if a parent or the primary caretaker providing the child's food responds to the interview. Meredith et al. found parents to be poor reporters of children's consumption outside the home. It is encouraging to note that parents can be reliable reporters of their children's food intake in the home environment. When errors did occur, they were errors in portion size, as 96% of foods eaten by the children were correctly identified by the parents. Parents under-reported only 4% of the time. This slight tendency to under-report is consistent with other reports of the validity of the 24-hour dietary recall. In younger children, parents appear to be reliable reporters of their children's in-home dietary intake. As children become older, they appear to be able to recall their own intake both within and outside the home. There are several possible explanations for these findings. First, several factors could have influenced the accuracy of parental reports of the child's intake during the day that we weighed foods. Because food was weighed in the homes, the parents undoubtedly attended more closely to their child's diet. Additionally, the dietary recalls were collected at the end of the day of observation. This was closer in time than most 24-hour recalls and may have reflected less memory decay than usual. Also, since our sample was primarily middle-class families who were well educated, the correspondence between actual vs. reported dietary intake may have been artificially enhanced.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

'Finish your soup': counterproductive effects of pressuring children to eat on intake and affect

The authors examined whether pressuring preschoolers to eat would affect food intake and preferences, using a repeated-measures experimental design. In the experimental condition, children were pressured to eat by a request to finish their food. We collected intake data, heights and weights, child-feeding practices data, and children's comments about the food. Children consumed significantly more food when they were not pressured to eat and they made overwhelmingly fewer negative comments. Children who were pressured to eat at home had lower body mass index percentile scores and were less affected by the pressure in the lab setting than children who were not pressured at home. These data provide experimental evidence supporting previous correlational research indicating that pressure can have negative effects on children's affective responses to and intake of healthy foods.     

福州市儿童摄食情况及其影响因素调查研究

[目的]了解福州市儿童的食物摄食情况及其影响因素.[方法]采用整群抽样方法在市区抽取5所幼儿园,对778名儿童及家长进行问卷调查.[结果]儿童经常吃的食物是米饭、面包、肉、鱼、鸡蛋、青菜和牛奶,豆腐较少吃;柑桔、冰淇淋、蘑菇、青菜、西红柿和馒头女童摄入较多,男童摄入肉较多;母亲的文化程度、职业及父母亲是否关注儿童喂养的电视或书刊,均与儿童合理摄食有关（P＜0.05）.[结论]要使儿童养成良好的饮食习惯,家长要积极引导,学校要加强健康教育.     

营养教育对幼儿家长营养知识·态度·行为的影响

目的了解营养教育对合肥市幼儿家长营养知识、态度与行为的影响,以便为制定幼儿营养干预措施的制定提供科学依据.方法采取随机、分层、整群抽样的方法在合肥市选取8所幼儿园,随机分为干预组和对照组.在干预组幼儿园定期举办家长营养知识培训班,并将编写的幼儿营养知识手册分发给家长学习.采用自拟调查问卷对干预前、干预中期和终期幼儿家长营养知识、态度与行为进行调查.结果组间比较显示,干预组家长的营养知识水平明显提高,每周吃1～2次及以上水果、牛奶、鱼类的人数增加.自身对照研究显示,通过营养教育,干预组家长每周吃1～2次及以上杂粮、牛奶、水产品、海带和紫菜的人数增加,而吃畜肉、街头小吃、西餐的人数减少.无论是干预组还是对照组,家长对接受营养知识均持积极的态度.结论营养教育对家长的营养知识、态度和行为有积极的影响,可通过书籍、报刊、杂志、电视节目、专家义务讲座等途径进行.     

Restricting access to palatable foods affects children's behavioral response, food selection, and intake.

BACKGROUND: Restricting children's access to palatable foods may appeal to parents as a straightforward means of promoting moderate intakes of foods high in fat and sugar; however, restricting access to palatable foods may have unintended effects on children's eating. The efficacy of restricting children's access to palatable foods as a means of promoting patterns of moderate intake of those foods is unknown. OBJECTIVE: Two experiments were conducted to test the hypothesis that restricting access to a palatable food enhances children's subsequent behavioral responses to, selection of, and intake of that restricted food. DESIGN: Both experiments used a within-subjects design to examine the effects of restricting access to a palatable food on children's subsequent behavior, food selection, and food intake. The first experiment examined the effects of restriction within and outside the restricted context and the second experiment focused on the effects within the restricted context. RESULTS: In both experiments, restricting access to a palatable food increased children's behavioral response to that food. Experiment 2 showed that restricting access increased children's subsequent selection and intake of that food within the restricted context. CONCLUSIONS: Restricting access focuses children's attention on restricted foods, while increasing their desire to obtain and consume those foods. Restricting children's access to palatable foods is not an effective means of promoting moderate intake of palatable foods and may encourage the intake of foods that should be limited in the diet.     

Associations among Food Insecurity, Acculturation, Demographic Factors, and Fruit and Vegetable Intake at Home in Hispanic Children

The purpose of this cross-sectional pilot study was to examine associations between food insecurity, acculturation, demographic factors, and children's fruit and vegetable intake among a sample of Hispanic children ages 5 to 12 years. A convenience sample of 184 parents of low socioeconomic status completed one-time, self-administered questionnaires assessing demographic information, acculturation, and food insecurity in the spring of 2006. In addition, children's fruit and vegetable intake at home was measured using a validated seven-item index. Parents were recruited through local elementary schools in San Antonio, TX. Pearson and Spearman correlations were used to examine the associations between the variables. t tests were used to explore the differences in means of children's fruit and vegetable intake at home for acculturation and food insecurity levels. Statistical significance was set at P<0.05. Significant correlations were found between demographic variables, acculturation, food insecurity, and children's fruit and vegetable intake at home. The overall mean fruit and vegetable intake at home was 1.04±0.63 (mean±standard deviation) servings per day. Higher rates of acculturation and higher rates of food insecurity were associated with lower fruit and vegetable intake at home. The findings reported in this study suggest a need for culturally tailored interventions targeting Hispanic children because fruit and vegetable intake at home among Hispanic children was low, regardless of the level of acculturation or food insecurity.     

Association between family variables and Mexican American children's dietary behaviors

OBJECTIVE: To examine the association between family variables and children's diets. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study with households sampled using random-digit dialing. Children completed a one-time, self-administered survey, and mothers participated in a face-to-face structured interview. SETTING: Data collection occurred in southern San Diego County on the U.S.-Mexico border. PARTICIPANTS: One hundred sixty-seven Mexican American children between 8 and 18 years of age and their mothers. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Diet: number of snacks, candies and sweets, and sodas consumed daily; dietary fat and fiber; and money spent weekly on fast food and snacks. Family variables: household size, family support for healthful eating, number of meals eaten together, availability of fast food in the home, food ads seen on television, and parent purchasing food products that children saw advertised on television. DATA ANALYSES: Regression analyses were used to examine the independent contributions of family variables on dietary intake. Statistical significance was set at P < .05. RESULTS: Greater family support for healthful eating was associated with fewer snacks and more fiber consumed. Children of parents who purchased food products that their children had seen advertised on television reported consuming more snacks and more fat, and they spent more money on fast food and snacks. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: Family-based interventions are needed to moderate the potential influence of television-advertised food products on children's requests for these food products.     

Traditional foods and practices of Spanish-speaking Latina mothers influence the home food environment: implications for future interventions

This study aimed to obtain in-depth information from low-income, Spanish-speaking Latino families with young children to guide the development of culturally appropriate nutrition interventions. Focus groups were used to assess parent's knowledge about healthful eating, the home food environment, perceived influences on children's eating habits, food purchasing practices, and commonly used strategies to promote healthful eating among their children. Thirty-four Latino parents (33 women; 27 born in Mexico; 21 food-insecure) of preschool-aged children participated in four focus group discussions conducted in Spanish by a trained moderator. The focus groups were audiotaped, transcribed, translated, and coded by independent raters. Results suggest that in general, parents were very knowledgeable about healthful eating and cited both parents and school as significant factors influencing children's eating habits; at home, most families had more traditional Mexican foods available than American foods; cost and familiarity with foods were the most influential factors affecting food purchasing; many parents had rules regarding sugar intake; and parents cited role modeling, reinforcement, and creative food preparation as ways to encourage children's healthful eating habits. Finally, parents generated ideas on how to best assist Latino families through interventions. Parents indicated that future interventions should be community based and teach skills to purchase and prepare meals that include low-cost and traditional Mexican ingredients, using hands-on activities. In addition, interventions could encourage and reinforce healthy food-related practices that Latino families bring from their native countries.     

The relationship between snack intake and its availability of 4th-6th graders in Taiwan

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between the snack intake and snack availability of elementary school children. Data analyzed were from 722 4th to 6th graders' food availability and food intake questionnaires collected in the Nutrition and Health Survey in Taiwan Elementary School Children 2001-2002. The snacks commonly eaten were divided into two groups. Healthy snacks included dairy products, 100% fruit juice and fresh fruits. Unhealthy snacks included high fat/sugar snacks, cookies, candy, carbonated/sugared beverages and fast food. Structural equating modeling was used to test the models that describe the availability and intake of two snack groups. Results indicated that parents' intake and children's preference were major predictors of children intake of both healthy and unhealthy snacks. Other than that, the intake of unhealthy snacks was positively associated with "purchase by children themselves" but not the intake of healthy snacks, which was influenced predominantly by "present in home". The results support the perception that a positive family food environment is important for improving children's diet quality. To build a healthy family food environment, parents have to not only provide healthy snacks but also limit the unhealthy snacks in home. In addition to that, the role modeling of parents as eating healthy snacks instead of unhealthy snacks themselves may help children to develop similar behaviors.     

Restricting Access to Foods and Children''s Eating

This study evaluated maternal restriction of children's access to snack foods as a predictor of children's intake of those foods when they were made freely available. In addition, child and parent eating-related "risk" factors were used to predict maternal reports of restricting access. Participants were 71, 3-to-5-year-old children (36 boys, 35 girls) and their parents. Children's snack food intake was measured immediately following a meal, in a setting offering free access to palatable snack foods. Child and maternal reports of restricting children's access to those snack foods were obtained. In addition, information on child and parent adiposity as well as parents' restrained and disinhibited eating was used to examine "risk" factors for restricting access. For girls only, child and maternal reports of restricting access predicted girls' snack food intake, with higher levels of restriction predicting higher levels of snack food intake. Maternal restriction, in turn, was predicted by children's adiposity. Additionally, parents' own restrained eating style predicted maternal restriction of girls' access to snack foods.     

Does eating during television viewing affect preschool children's intake?

The objective of this study was to examine the effects of television (TV) viewing on children's lunch and snack intake in one condition when the children watched a 22-minute cartoon video on TV (TV group), and in another without the TV (no TV group). Participants included 24 children and their parents, recruited from a university child-care center. Parents reported children's TV viewing habits at home. Overall, children ate significantly less snack and lunch in the TV condition compared with the no TV condition. However, children who reportedly watched more daily hours of TV and who had a higher frequency of meals eaten in front of the TV at home ate more lunch in the TV condition. TV viewing may either increase or reduce children's intake, depending on prior experience with eating during TV viewing.     

Nutrition knowledge and food intake of seven-year-old children in an atherosclerosis prevention project with onset in infancy: the impact of child-targeted nutrition counselling given to the parents

OBJECTIVE: To compare nutrition knowledge and food intake in 7-y-old intervention and control children in an atherosclerosis risk factor intervention trial after 6.5 y of nutrition counselling given to the parents. DESIGN, SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Intervention families in the Special Turku Coronary Risk Factor Intervention Project received child-oriented nutritional counselling one to three times a year since child's age of 7 months, aimed at reduced saturated fat and cholesterol intake. Children's nutrition knowledge was analysed in a time-restricted cohort of 70 seven-y-old (34 boys) intervention children and 70 control children (40 boys) with a picture identification test. For comparison, children's food intake was evaluated using scores developed for the project that reflected quality and quantity of fat and quantity of salt in children's two or three 4-day food diaries recorded between 5.5 and 7 y of age. RESULTS: Child-targeted nutrition counselling of the intervention families only slightly increased intervention children's knowledge of heart-healthy foods (42.6% vs 34.9% correct answers by the intervention and control children, P = 0.057). Only < or = 20% of the children were able to adequately justify their answers in the test. The food diaries of the intervention children comprised more foods low in saturated fat and high in unsaturated fat than those of the control children (57.1% vs 41.7% of the maximum score for low fat foods, P = 0.0001; 48.9% vs 37.7% for high unsaturated fat foods, P = 0.0009, respectively), but the intervention and control children consumed similar amounts of low-salt foods (P = 0.23). Nutrition knowledge and food use scores correlated poorly (r = -0.20-0.35). CONCLUSIONS: Child-targeted nutrition counselling repeatedly given to the parents during and after child's infancy strongly influenced food choice scores of the 5.5-7-y-old children but failed to influence children's salt intake or scores in a nutrition knowledge picture test.     

Involvement in Meal Preparation at Home Is Associated With Better Diet Quality Among Canadian Children

ObjectiveTo examine the associations between home meal preparation involvement with diet quality and food group intake among children.MethodsGrade 5 children aged 10–11 years (n = 3,398) were surveyed. Food intake was measured using the Harvard Youth/Adolescent Food Frequency Questionnaire, and diet quality was measured using the Diet Quality Index–International. Random effects regression models with children nested within schools were used to test for associations.ResultsHigher frequency of involvement in home meal preparation was associated with higher Diet Quality Index–International scores. Children who were involved in meal preparation daily ate 1 more serving/d of vegetables and fruit compared with children who never helped (P < .001). Similar significant differences, although small, were observed for intake of the other food groups.Conclusions and ImplicationsChildren who were more involved in home meal preparation also consumed healthier diets. Encouraging parents to involve their children in meal preparation could be a viable health promotion strategy.     

Australian parents' views on their 5-6-year-old children's food choices

The home food environment is central to the development of healthy eating behaviours, but associations between the home food environment and children's food choices are not yet fully understood. The aims of this study were to explore parents' views regarding factors that influence children's food choices and parents' decision-making regarding the food they provide to their children. In-depth one-on-one interviews were conducted using a semi-structured interview schedule. Key concepts and themes were coded independently by two investigators. Participants include seventeen parents (16 mothers and 1 father) of children in their first year of formal schooling (aged 5-6 years). Five main themes emerged from the interviews: food marketing, food availability/food exposure, feeding strategies, modelling of eating and opportunities for food involvement. Parents believed that food marketing influenced their child's food preferences but differed in the ways they managed these influences. The food made available to children was also seen to influence what a child ate. Yet, although some parents believed it was the parents' role to determine what foods were made available to their child, others offered food on the basis of the child's tastes or preferences. The use of food as a reward was a feeding strategy employed by many parents. Family mealtimes were seen as an important opportunity for modelling of eating behaviour by parents. Peers were also seen to influence children's food preferences and eating behaviour. Finally, many parents believed that involving children in the preparation of food had a positive impact on children's food choices. Associations between the home food environment and children's food choices are complex and involve multiple mediators. Parents' views on the promoters and reinforcers of their decision-making regarding food and their child's food choices provide useful insights into these mediating factors. Increased understanding of these relationships is likely to enhance obesity prevention efforts.     

Parent-child relationships in nutrient intake: the Framingham Children's Study.

Nutrient intake affects many of the identified risk factors for coronary heart disease (CHD). Although CHD risk factors have been shown to aggregate within families, less is known about the familial aggregation of nutrient intake. We analyzed diet records for an average of 9 d per subject on 87 mothers, 83 fathers, and 91 children aged 3-5 y. A statistically significant but modest correlation (r less than 0.50) was found between parents' and children's intakes for most nutrients. The intake of nutrients was more strongly related between mothers and children than between fathers and children, and there was a stronger association with children's values for parents consuming more meals at home. The results of this study confirm that parents' eating habits have an impact on the nutrient intake of their preschool children; the study furnishes indirect support for dietary-intervention programs targeting families for the primary prevention of CHD.     

福州市儿童食物偏好及其影响因素调查研究

[目的]了解儿童的食物偏好状况及其影响因素。[方法]用整群抽样法对福州市区5所幼儿园的778名儿童家长进行儿童食物偏好及其影响因素问卷调查,用SPSS11.5软件包进行数据统计和分析。[结果]在24种食物中,牛奶、零食(冰淇淋、果冻、可乐、炸鸡等)等儿童均很喜欢,而鱼、鸡鸭、青菜、豆腐、胡萝卜、蘑菇和馒头,不喜欢者占25%。男女儿童的食物偏好存在差异。儿童的食物偏好与摄入情况呈正相关(P<0.01);儿童偏好与其母亲食物偏好正相关(P<0.01)。[结论]为保证儿童健康成长,母亲应有合理膳食的知识和有良好的饮食习惯,学校也应开展合理膳食和良好饮食行为的健康教育。     

Daily consumption of individual snack foods decreases their reinforcing value

The reinforcing value of food is one factor that influences energy intake. The purpose of this study was to determine if the reinforcing value of highly liked snack foods could be modified by restriction or daily intake of individual preferred foods in the absence of changes in total energy intake. Food reinforcement was tested at baseline and after each of two, two-week phases. During the restriction phase, participants did not eat a target food or closely related foods while during the daily intake phase, participants consumed a 200-300 kcal portion of the target food daily. The reinforcing value of the target food significantly decreased after two weeks of daily intake. Restriction did not change food reinforcement. These data suggest that eating a portion of a highly palatable food every day decreases its reinforcing value. Implications for weight control are discussed.