The impact of HIV infection on the clinical presentation of severe malnutrition in children at QECH

A study was undertaken in a central nutritional rehabilitation unit (NRU) in southern Malawi to assess the impact of HIV infection on clinical presentation and case fatality rate. The HIV seroprevalence for 250 severely malnourished children over 1 year of age was 34.4% and the overall mortality was 28%. HIV infection was significantly more associated with marasmus (62.2%) than with kwashiorkor (21.7%) [p<0.0001]. Clinical and radiological features were not helpful in distinguishing HIV infected from non HIV infected children. The in-hospital case fatality rate was significantly higher for HIV infected children (38.4%) compared to severely malnourished children without HIV infection (22.7%) [p<0.05]. Though HIV infection contributes to the high mortality experienced in NRU''s in Malawi, we argue that more remediable contributing factors still need to be addressed.     

Tuberculosis Drug Resistance and Outcomes among Tuberculosis Inpatients in Lilongwe,Malawi

Setting/Objective

We evaluated clinical characteristics, yield of solid vs. liquid culture, polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based drug-resistance profiles, and clinical outcomes of tuberculosis (TB) inpatients in Lilongwe, Malawi.

Design

We enrolled adult patients admitted to the Bwaila TB Ward from Jan-Aug/2010. Evaluations included questionnaires, clinical exam, chest radiograph, HIV status, CD4 lymphocyte count, plasma HIVRNA and sputum analysis including Auramine-O stain, Lowenstein-Jensen (LJ) and Mycobacterial Growth Indicator Tube (MGIT) culture, and susceptibility testing using the HAIN GenoType® MTBDRplus.

Results

Eighty-eight patients were enrolled (88% re-treatment, 42% smear positive, 93% pulmonary TB, 74% HIV co-infected). At baseline, 44/88 (50%) MGIT and 28 (32%) LJ cultures were positive with a mean time to positivity of 12.1 (Range 1–42) and 21.5 (Range 7–58) days, respectively. Four percent (3/77) of retreatment patients or 8% of the 38 MGIT+ PCR-confirmed retreatment cases had multi-drug resistant tuberculosis (MDR TB). One MDR TB patient was smear negative and only one MDR patient was identified with LJ. Lower mean hemoglobin at admission was associated with mortality (10.5 vs. 7.5; p<0.01; CI 101 9.8–11.0).

Conclusions

The MDR TB burden among the retreatment population in Lilongwe, Malawi is similar to regional estimates by the WHO (7.7% 95% CI 0–18.1). MDR TB patients are not routinely identified with sputum smear or LJ, suggesting more efficient technology should be adopted.     

Childhood tuberculosis in Malawi: caseload,diagnostic practices and treatment outcomes

There were 22,982 cases of TB registered in Malawi in 1998, of which 2739 (11.9%) were children. Children accounted for 11.3% of all case notifications with smear-positive pulmonary TB (PTB), 21.3% with smear-negative PTB and 15.9% with extrapulmonary TB (EPTB). A significantly higher proportion of TB cases were diagnosed in central hospitals. Only 45% of children completed treatment. There were high rates of death (17%), default (13%) and unknown treatment outcomes (21%). Treatment outcomes were worse in younger children and in children with smear-negative PTB. In 2001, all 44 non-private hospitals in Malawi that register and treat children with tuberculosis (TB) were surveyed to determine actual diagnostic practice. This cross sectional study identified 150 children aged 14 years or below in hospital receiving anti-TB treatment, 98 with pulmonary TB (PTB) and 52 with extrapulmonary TB (EPTB). Median duration of illness was 8 weeks. Most patients had fever, no response to anti-malarial treatment and antibiotics, and 40% had a positive family history of TB. Nearly 45% had weight for age < 60%. Diagnosis was mainly based on clinical features and radiography, with less than 10% having tuberculin skin tests or HIV serology, and very few having other sophisticated investigations. Diagnostic difficulties make it difficult to accurately define the actual burden of childhood TB in Malawi. Diagnostic practices are poor and treatment outcomes unsatisfactory.     

Challenges of Childhood TB/HIV Management in Malawi

The diagnosis and management of childhood tuberculosis (TB) are major challenges in countries such as Malawi with high incidence of TB and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. Diagnosis of TB in children often relies only on clinical features but clinical overlap with the presentation of HIV and other HIV-related lung disease is common. The tuberculin skin test (TST), the standard marker of M. tuberculosis infection in immune competent children, has poor sensitivity in HIV-infected children and is not usually available in Malawi. HIV test should be routine in children with suspected TB as it improves clinical management. HIV-infected children are at increased risk of developing active disease following TB exposure which justifies the use of isoniazid preventive therapy (IPT) once active disease has been excluded but this is difficult to implement and appropriate duration of IPT is unknown. HIV-infected children with active TB experience higher mortality and relapse rates on standard TB treatment compared to HIV-uninfected children, highlighting the need for further research to define optimal treatment regimens. HIV-infected children should also receive appropriate supportive care including cotrimoxazole prophylaxis and anti-retroviral treatment (ART) if indicated. There are concerns about concurrent use of some anti-TB drugs such as rifampicin with some ARTs.     

Controlled trial comparing co-trimoxazole and methenamine hippurate in the prevention of recurrent urinary tract infections.

To study the effects of continous low doses of antibacterial agents after eradication of bacteriuria in patients with recurrent urinary tract infection, 31 patients with documented recurrent urinary tract infection were allocated alternately to treatment with either co-trimoxazole (400 mg of suphamethoxazole and 80 mg of trimethoprim each night) or methenamine hippurate (1 g each night). The majority of patients (79%) had underlying radiological abnormalities of the renal tract, but normal renal function (the mean serum creatinine level was 1.05 mg per 100 ml). During the study the incidence of bacteriuria and pyuria was significantly lower in the co-trimoxazole-treated group. Patients receiving co-trimoxazole also had fewer acute clinical episodes of urinary tract infection than patients receiving methenamine hippurate. There were no significant side effects from either drug. Two patients with frequent recurrences of infection developed renal calculi. No change in creatinine clearance or maximum urinary concentrating ability was observed over a follow-up period of four to 30 months (mean 10.4 months). Co-trimoxazole is an effective agent in the prophylaxis of urinary tract infection in this highly susceptible group of patients, and in the doses used was superior to methenamine hippurate.     

广西崇左市4个边境市县抗病毒治疗HIV感染者耐药情况及基因型

目的 了解广西崇左市4个边境市县（大新县、宁明县、凭祥市、龙州县）接受抗病毒治疗的艾滋病病毒（HIV）感染者的基因型耐药情况及其影响因素,为该地区艾滋病治疗人群的抗病毒治疗（ART）方案调整和优化提供科学依据。方法 纳入2018年1月—2018年9月371例来自崇左市4个边境市县年龄≥18岁的HIV感染者,收集研究对象抗病毒治疗信息和pol区基因序列进行基因亚型和耐药情况分析。结果 获得371例患者的HIV pol区序列,对抗病毒药物产生耐药有62例,总体耐药率16.7%,耐药患者基因亚型以CRF01_AE为主,占72.6%,其次是CRF08_BC,占22.6%;耐药类型以非核苷类药物为主,占75.8%,耐药突变位点以K103N为主,主要对EFV和NVP产生耐药。多因素Logistic回归分析结果显示,地区来源于龙州县（OR=3.392,95%CI：1.093~10.525）、基因亚型为08BC(OR=9.431,95%CI：3.296~26.985),更换过治疗方案（OR=2.662,95%CI：1.241~5.708）与检出基因型耐药密切相关。基因距离分析显示CRF01_AE>CRF08_BC>CRF07_BC;不同亚型中,耐药组基因距离均大于非耐药组。结论 广西边境部分地区HIV/AIDS 患者抗病毒治疗耐药率较高,且高度耐药占比较高,需加强合理用药、HIV耐药检测,提高患者服药依从性。     

Prophylactic use of fluconazole in neutropenic cancer patients.

This study was carried out on 70 patients with haematological or solid malignancies who were receiving chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy. Forty-one patients were randomly assigned to receive fluconazole, 400 mg/day, while they were neutropenic. Systemic fungal infection developed in four of the 41 patients (9%) receiving prophylaxis in comparison to nine of 29 patients (31%) not receiving prophylaxis. The incidence of systemic fungal infection was significantly different between the groups receiving prophylaxis and those not receiving it (p < 0.05). Fluconazole was found to be effective for preventing systemic fungal infections in neutropenic patients with cancer.     

应用噬菌体生物扩增法对HIV/TB双重感染患者抗结核药耐药性分析研究

目的 利用噬菌体生物扩增法(PhaB)分析人类免疫缺陷病毒(HIV)合并结核病(TB)双重感染患者的结核分枝杆菌的耐药状况,优化防治对策.方法 运用PhaB法对重庆市第九人民医院收治的112例HIV/TB双重感染患者(HIV/TB组)做TB菌的药敏检测,并与208例单纯肺结核患者(单纯TB组)的药敏检测做对比分析.结果 HIV/TB组的抗TB药耐药率要比单纯TB组低,HIV/TB双重感染患者5种常见抗TB药物的耐药率分别为异烟肼(INH) 7.14％、吡嗪酰胺(PZA) 7.14％、利福平(RFP) 5.36％、链霉素(SM) 5.36％、乙胺丁醇(EMB)4.46％,与单纯TB组患者比较(RFP 17.31％、INH 13.46％、PZA11.54％、EMB 10.58％、SM 9.62％),HIV/TB组RFP的耐药率低于单纯TB组,差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05),其他4种抗TB药耐药率与单纯TB组比较差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05),与绝对浓度法结果符合率分别为INH 96.4％、RFP 98.2％、PZA 96.4％、EMB 93.8％和SM 96.4％.结论 本地区HIV/TB双重感染患者结核分枝杆菌对RFP耐药率较普通肺结核患者低,与该类患者良好的服药依从性相关.PhaB测定所需时间短,操作简便,不需特殊仪器设备,可作为结核分枝杆菌耐药性的快速筛选方法.     

Effect of long-term co-trimoxazole therapy on renal function.

In order to study the effect of long-term administration of co-trimoxazole on renal function, creatinine clearance rates were measured in 18 patients with neurogenic hypotonia of the bladder due to paraplegia, quadriplegia, hemiplegia and cerebrocervical injuries. The duration of the prophylactic treatment was between 60 and 80 days. The initial average creatinine clearance rate of this group was 99-0 ml/min and the final one was 110-7 ml/min (P = 0-15, n.s.). In addition, in seven cases the prophylaxis was extended to a period of 330 to 430 days. In this group the initial average creatinine clearance rate was 104-4 ml/min and the final one was 94-7 ml/min (P greater than 0-3, n.s.). It is concluded, therefore, that prolonged administration of co-trimoxazole to patients with creatinine clearance above 50 ml/min does not cause any marked deterioration in the renal function.     

Features associated with underlying HIV infection in severe acute childhood malnutrition: a cross sectional study

Introduction

Up to half of all children presenting to Nutrition Rehabilitation Units (NRUs) in Malawi with severe acute malnutrition (SAM) are infected with HIV. There are many-similarities in the clinical presentation of SAM and HIV. It is important to identify HIV infected children, in order to improve case management. This study aims to identify features suggestive of HIV in children with SAM.

Methods

All 1024 children admitted to the Blantyre NRU between July 2006 and March 2007 had demographic, anthropometric and clinical characteristics documented on admission. HIV status was known for 904 children, with 445 (43%) seropositive and 459 (45%) seronegative. Features associated with HIV were determined.

Results

Associations were found for the following signs: chronic ear discharge (OR 14.6, 95%CI 5.8–36.7), lymphadenopathy (6.4, 3.5–11.7), clubbing (4.9, 2.6–9.4), marasmus (4.9, 3.56.8), hepato-splenomegally (3.2, 1.8–5.6), and oral Candida (2.4, 1.8–3.27). Any one of these signs was present in 74% of the HIV seropositive, and 38% of HIV uninfected children. A history of recurrent respiratory infection (OR 9.6, 4.8–18.6), persistent fever, recent outpatient attendance, or hospital admission were also associated with HIV. Persistent diarrhoea was no more frequent in HIV (OR 1.1). Orphaning (OR 2.1,1.4–3.3) or a household contact with TB (OR 1.7,1.1–2.6), were more common in HIV. Each of these features were present in > 10% of seropositive children. HIV infected children were more stunted, wasted, and anaemic than uninfected children.

Conclusions

Features commonly associated with HIV were often present in uninfected children with SAM, and HIV could neither be diagnosed, nor excluded using these. We recommend HIV testing be offered to all children with SAM where HIV is prevalent.     

六安市某县结核病细菌学检测及耐药相关因素分析

目的：了解六安市某县结核病耐药状况及相关因素,为制订全市耐药结核病控制策略提供参考依据。方法随机抽取我市辖区1县（区）,将2013年1月至12月所有登记肺结核病例作为研究对象,进行痰涂片镜检、细菌培养、药敏实验及菌种鉴定,并分析相关影响因素。结果结核分枝杆菌总耐药率（单耐药率）为25%（37/148）,耐多药率为8.1%（12/148）,广泛耐药率为2.03%（3/148）;非结核分枝杆菌总耐药率（单耐药率）为100%（5/5）耐多药率为80%（4/5）,广泛耐药率为80%（4/5）;单因素及多因素分析显示,复治是单耐药及耐多药结核病的危险因素,20~50岁年龄是耐多药结核病的独立危险因素。涂片阳性率为16.27%（95/584）,痰培养阳性率为26.20%（153/584）。结论六安市某县结核病耐药疫情形势严峻,需加强对初治病例及青壮年病例的管理,提高其治疗依从性和治疗成功率,减少耐药结核发生。同时需加强结核病的细菌学检测工作,提高菌阳肺结核和耐药结核分枝杆菌的发现率。     

The prevalence of pulmonary tuberculosis among miners from the Karonga,Rumphi, Kasungu and Lilongwe Districts of Malawi in 2019

IntroductionMiners in sub-Saharan Africa have a greater risk of tuberculosis (TB) than any other working population in the world. In spite of the presence of large and vulnerable population of miners in Malawi, no previous study has aimed to assess the burden of TB among these miners. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) and health-seeking behaviour (HSB) in a population of miners in Malawi, and a range of associated factors. Our goal was to develop a method to identify missing cases of TB.MethodsWe conducted a cross-sectional study in the Karonga, Rumphi, Kasungu and Lilongwe districts of Malawi in 2019. We calculated frequencies, proportions, odds ratios (ORs) and their 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs), and used the chi-square test in STATA version15.1 to investigate the burden and magnitude of PTB in the mining sector. Bivariate and multivariate logistic regression models were also fitted for PTB and HSB.ResultsOf the 2400 miners approached, we were able to interview 2013 (84%). Of these, 1435 (71%) were males, 1438 (71%) had known HIV status and 272 (14%) had PTB. Multivariate analysis showed that the miners performing informal mining were 50% more likely to develop PTB compared with those in formal mining (adjusted odds ratio [AOR]=1.50, 95% CI: 1.10–2.05, P=0.01). A total of 459 (23% of 2013) miners had presumptive TB. Of these, 120 (26%) sought health care; 80% sought health care at health facilities. Multivariate analysis also showed that miners who experienced night sweats were less likely to seek health care compared with those without night sweats (AOR=0.52, 95% CI: 0.30–0.90, P=0.02).ConclusionThe prevalence of PTB was higher among miners than in the general population. Consequently, targeted TB screening programmes for miners may represent a suitable strategy to adopt if we are to end TB by 2030. Poor health-seeking behaviours among miners is worrisome and further qualitative research is necessary to understand the barriers to accessing health care in these settings.     

PROLONGED FEVER DURING THE TREATMENT OF PULMONARY TUBERCULOSIS

A study was carried out to investigate the causes of prolonged fever or onset of fever, after starting anti-tubercular treatment (ATT) in sputum smear positive, HIV negative patients admitted in a Tuberculosis (TB) Sanatorium for directly observed therapy (DOT). A total of 40 patients were studied. All were males with age ranging from 22-55 years (mean 43 years). There were 22 (55%) patients with radiological extensive disease, 12 (30%) of whom had toxemia of TB (any three of the following, <90% body weight, hypoalbuminemia, hyponatremia, severe normocytic anaemia, <5mm response on tuberculin testing). Radiologically, moderately extensive disease was seen in 9 (22.5%) cases, whereas focal disease was present in another 9 (22.5%) patients. There were 28 (70%) patients who had evidence of dissemination of disease to extra pulmonary organs. It was found that fever occurred because of direct complications of TB in 22.5%, TB hypersensitivity (cold abscess) in 12.5%, drug resistance in 10% and drug reactions in 22.5%. Other diseases were the cause of fever in 32.5%. These included superadded lung infections in 15%, malaria in 7.5% anaemia in 5%. Filariasis and amoebic liver abscess in another 2.5% each. It is concluded that such fevers require a systematic and detailed investigation rather than attributing fever to drug resistance or TB toxemia alone.KEY WORDS: Prolonged fever, Pulmonary tuberculosis, Treatment     

Cases of human immunodeficiency virus infection and tuberculosis--early experiences of different aspects

An outpatients department based survey conducted in Calcutta amongst 1349 established cases of tuberculosis (TB) revealed 0.67% human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infected cases. Those affected by HIV and TB did not show any deviation from epidemiological pattern of HIV infection in India. All contracted HIV infection by heterosexual route, mostly from Bombay (47.8%) followed by West Bengal (30.4%). In follow-up study of a cohort of 36 HIV seropositives over 3 years, 10(27.7%) developed TB. Of the 23 HIV infected cases with TB, lesions were mostly pulmonary (n = 18, 78.3%) followed by pleural effusion (n = 3;13%). Low incidence of Mycobacterium avium (intracelluarae) complex and tuberculous lymphadenopathy one case each and 52.2% positivity with 14.5 mm mean induration diameter in intradermal test with one TU PPD-RT23 are deviations from previous reports. Low incidence of cough (43.5%), marked weight loss (100%) and fever (100%) were the cardinal clinical features. TB infection on pattern suggestive of reactivation of dormant pulmonary lesions lower rate (11%) of treatment failure and infection caused by organisms other than Mycobacterium tuberculosis were other findings of the study. Importance of serosurveillance to unearth more TB cases amongst HIV infected cases for early treatment and isoniazid prophylaxis is stressed upon.     

Patient outcome in adults with pneumococcal meningitis or bacteraemia admitted to QECH

Pneumococcal infections are common in Malawian adults. We set out to determine which factors influence in-hospital mortality and long-term survival among these patients. Features of history and examination, inpatient mortality and long-term survival were described among consecutively admitted QECH patients with S. pneumoniae in blood or CSF. 217 patients with pneumococcal disease were studied over an 18-month period. Among these, 158 of 167 consenting to testing (95%) were HIV positive. Inpatient mortality was 65% for pneumococcal meningitis (n=64), 20% for pneumococcaemic pneumonia (n=92) and 26% for patients with pneumococcaemia without localising signs (n=43). Lowered conscious level (OR 5.8, p<0.001), hypotension(OR 4.8, p=0.04) and age exceeding 55 years (OR 3.8, p=0.001) at presentation were associated with inpatient death but not long-term outcome in survivors. Outpatient death was associated with multilobar chest signs (HR 2.1, p=0.01), oral candidiasis (HR 1.8, p=0.03) and severe anaemia (HR 3.9, p=0.005) as an inpatient. In conclusion, most patients with pneumococcal disease in Malawi have severe disease, HIV co-infection and a poor prognosis. At discharge patients with multilobar chest signs or anaemia are at particular risk.     

An analysis of Malawi's publication productivity

Background

Publications productivity, the number of scientific articles published, is a measure of a country''s scientific output. If measured carefully it can be a useful indicator that describes a countries'' research activity. Our objective was to analyze trends in publications originating from Malawi between 1996 – 2006.

Methods

The MEDLINE/PubMed database, a registry of articles from over 5,000 scientific journals was searched for articles originating from Malawi between 1996 – 2006 by typing Malawi in the author affiliation search field. A review of abstracts was performed to determine health field and origin of first author — Malawian vs foreign.

Results

506 articles were retrieved of which 489 were on health. 15.5% on TB, 14.5% on HIV and AIDS, 11.2% on infectious disease, 7.2% on TB and HIV, 7.2% on Malaria. 20.9% of the authors were of Malawian origin and Tropical Doctor was the journal that had the most articles originating from Malawi. The number of articles published from Malawi has grown by 106% in the past ten years.

Conclusions

Our results suggest there is growth in scientific publishing in Malawi but the main contribution is from foreign researchers residing in Malawi. More needs to be done to promote publishing by Malawian authors.     

High incidence of tuberculosis in prison officers in Zomba,Malawi

We conducted a study in four prisons in Zomba district, Malawi, to determine the tuberculosis case notification rate in prison officers during the year 2000. Of 201 prison staff, 9 (4.5%) were diagnosed with TB: 2 with smear-positive pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB), 4 with smear-negative PTB and 3 with extrapulmonary TB (EPTB). This incidence in prison officers (9/201) was significantly greater than the incidence in primary school teachers in a separate (unpublished) study in Malawi the previous year (78/4,289) (OR 2.58,[95% CI, 2.44 – 2.73], p <0.015). Expressed as annual TB case notification rates, the data for prison officers in these 4 prisons was 4,478 per 100,000, compared to 1,786 per 100,000 in teachers. There may be a high incidence of TB in prison officers. Further research needs to be carried out in this group to confirm these findings and to develop an occupational health service to reduce the risk of TB for these workers.     

深圳市2016—2018年耐利福平结核病中耐多药结核病分布特征

目的 掌握深圳市耐利福平结核病中耐多药结核病检出情况及其分布特征,为制定耐药结核病临床治疗及预防控制措施提供理论依据。方法 收集2016—2018年在中国疾病预防控制信息系统《结核病信息管理系统》登记报告的深圳市耐药可疑肺结核患者信息资料,对耐利福平肺结核及其中的耐多药肺结核病检出情况、分布特征进行分析。结果 2016—2018年报告耐药可疑肺结核病7 669例,检出耐利福平肺结核病664例,检出率为8.7%。其中耐多药肺结核病506例（占76.2%）;2016—2018年耐利福平肺结核病检出率分别为8.5%、9.1%、8.3%,差异无统计学意义(P>0.05);耐多药肺结核病检出率分别为6.3%、7.5%、6.0 %,差异无统计学意义(P>0.05)。2016—2018年共报告耐利福平肺结核病男性检出率为8.7%,女性为8.6%,差异无统计学意义(P>0.05);耐多药肺结核病男性检出率为6.3%,女性为7.2%,差异无统计学意义(P>0.05)。职业分类为教师、学生、农民、民工、餐饮食品业的耐利福平结核病患者中耐多药结核病患者占100.0%,登记分类为返回的耐利福平结核病患者中耐多药结核病患者占100.0%。结论 深圳市耐利福平肺结核病中耐多药结核病检出率较高,在师生、农民工及返回类耐利福平结核病患者中表现最为明显,建议对该类耐利福平结核病患者的治疗尽早采取强化方案,提高师生及农民工患者管治质量,避免服药中断,降低耐药肺结核病发生。