Anatomy of the pituitary,thyroid, parathyroid and adrenal glands

A detailed understanding of anatomy is essential for several reasons: to enable accurate diagnosis and plan appropriate management; to perform surgery in a safe and effective manner avoiding damage to adjacent structures and; to anticipate and recognize variations in normal anatomy. This chapter will cover the anatomy of four major endocrine glands (thyroid, parathyroid, pituitary and adrenal). Other endocrine glands (such as the hypothalamus, pineal gland, thymus, endocrine pancreas and the gonads) are beyond the scope of this chapter. In addition to gross anatomy, clinically relevant embryological and histological details of these four glands are also discussed.     

Anatomy of the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid and adrenal glands

The anatomy of four major endocrine glands (thyroid, parathyroid, pituitary and adrenal) is the subject of this chapter. Other endocrine glands (such as the hypothalamus, pineal gland, thymus, endocrine pancreas and the gonads) exist, but are beyond the scope of this chapter. A detailed understanding of anatomy is essential for several reasons: to enable accurate diagnosis and plan appropriate management; to perform surgery in a safe and effective manner avoiding damage to adjacent normal structures and; to anticipate and recognize variations in normal anatomy. In addition to gross anatomy, clinically relevant embryological and histological details of these four glands are also discussed.     

Anatomy of the thyroid,parathyroid, pituitary and adrenal glands

A detailed understanding of anatomy is essential for several reasons: to enable accurate diagnosis and plan appropriate management; to perform surgery in a safe and effective manner avoiding damage to adjacent structures; and to anticipate and recognize variations in normal anatomy. This article will cover the anatomy of four major endocrine glands (thyroid, parathyroid, pituitary and adrenal). Other endocrine glands (such as the hypothalamus, pineal gland, thymus, endocrine pancreas and the gonads) are beyond the scope of this article. In addition to gross anatomy, clinically relevant embryological and histological details of these four glands are also discussed.     

Anatomy of the thyroid,parathyroid, pituitary and adrenal glands

A detailed understanding of anatomy is essential for several reasons: to enable accurate diagnosis and plan appropriate management; to perform surgery in a safe and effective manner avoiding damage to adjacent structures; and to anticipate and recognize variations in normal anatomy. This article will cover the anatomy of four major endocrine glands (thyroid, parathyroid, pituitary and adrenal). Other endocrine glands (such as the hypothalamus, pineal gland, thymus, endocrine pancreas and the gonads) are beyond the scope of this article. In addition to gross anatomy, clinically relevant embryological and histological details of these four glands are also discussed.     

The pathology of the pituitary,parathyroids, thyroid and adrenal glands

The pathology of these endocrine organs is generally related to overproduction or underproduction of hormones with resultant biochemical and clinical manifestations or a consequence of mass lesions. Hyperplastic processes and both benign and malignant neoplasms may be associated with hyperfunction. Hypofunction is usually a destructive process. An integrated multidisciplinary approach with morphological findings, biochemical measurements of hormone levels and their regulators is required to diagnose and treat endocrine diseases. Most hyperplasia/neoplasia are sporadic but a significant subset occurs in multiple endocrine neoplasia (MEN) syndromes, a group of inherited disorders of multiple endocrine organs.     

The pathology of pituitary,parathyroids, thyroid and adrenal glands

The pathology of these endocrine organs is generally related to over or underproduction of hormones with resultant biochemical and clinical manifestations or a consequence of mass lesions. Hyperplastic processes and both benign and malignant neoplasms may be associated with hyperfunction. Hypofunction is usually a destructive process. An integrated multidisciplinary approach with morphological findings, biochemical measurements of hormone levels and their regulators is required to diagnose and treat endocrine diseases. Most hyperplasia/neoplasia are sporadic but a significant subset occurs in multiple endocrine neoplasia (MEN) syndromes, a group of inherited disorders of multiple endocrine organs.     

Anatomy of the salivary glands

The salivary glands comprise the parotid, the submandibular and the sublingual glands as well as small subsidiary glands scattered beneath the mucosa of the buccal cavity. The largest, the parotid, drains by its duct into the mouth at the level of the second upper molar tooth. It is traversed by the facial nerve, which may be invaded by a parotid carcinoma or damaged during parotid surgery. The submandibular gland has a superficial part, at the angle of the jaw, wedged between the mandible and the mylohyoid muscle. Its deep part projects deep to mylohyoid along the hyoglossus. Its duct opens alongside the fraenum of the tongue, where it is easily visible, and is crossed by the lingual nerve. The sublingual gland lies in the floor of the mouth into which it drains directly by a series of short ducts.     

Anatomy and pathology of the sesamoid bones

Summary The sesamoid bones were studied in 100 hands and feet in 50 cadavers and in 1000 radiographs of the hands of South Sinai Bedouin children. The sesamoids of the metacarpophalangeal joint of the thumb and metatarsophalangeal joints of the hallux were always present in the dissections and radiographs. Other sesamoids were observed in the radiographs of the metacarpophalangeal joints of the index finger in 50% of the cases, the middle finger in 3%, the ring finger in 1% and the little finger in 70%. Sesamoids were also seen in 62% of the interphalangeal joints of the thumb. There are differences between the hand and the foot in relation to the occurrence of degenerative changes in the joints. In the thumb, the metacarpophalangeal joint is involved macroscopically in 75% of the cases, and only in 13% of the radiographs, with the pathological changes located in one or the other part of the joint. In the hallux, 40% of the cases are involved both macroscopically and in radiographs, but all the parts of the joint are affected.

---

Résumé Pour étudier les os sésamoïdes (OS), 100 mains et 50 pieds ont été disséqués sur le cadavre et les radiographies des mains de 1000 enfants bédouins du sud Sinaï ont été examinées.Les os des articulations métacarpo-phalangienne du pouce et métatarso-phalangienne du gros orteil, ont toujours été retrouvés, aussi bien dans les dissections que sur les radiographies. Les autres OS observés dans l'articulation MP se répartissent ainsi: index: 50% des cas; médius: 3%; annulaire: 1%; petit doigt: 70%. Ils ont été mis en évidence dans 62% des cas au niveau de l'articulations interphalangienne du pouce.Il y a des différences entre la main et le pied dans la fréquence des changements dégénératifs de ces articulations. Au niveau du pouce l'articulation n'a été trouvée affectée que dans 75% des cas à l'examen macroscopique et dans 13% seulement à l'examen radiographique. Les modifications pathologiques atteignaient l'une des deux extrémités articulaires. Pour le gros orteil, 40% des cas pathologiques ont été décelés tant à l'examen macroscopique que radiologique, mais dans cette localisation tous les composants de l'articulation étaient affectés.