克服异种移植免疫排斥的研究进展

目的 综述克服异种移植免疫排斥的方法.方法 广泛查阅近年国内外克服异种移植免疫排斥的相关文献,并进行总结与分析.结果 目前对异种移植免疫排斥机制和分子生物学技术的研究,为解决异种移植免疫排斥提供了新的思路.结论 异种器官移植应用于临床仅是时间问题.     

异种移植免疫排斥的研究进展

异种移植是解决人体器官严重短缺的重要思路.随着对异种移植排斥和人畜共患感染性疾病的深入研究,以及α-1,3-半乳糖苷转移酶基因敲除猪的成功构建,以猪为供体的异种移植与临床应用之间的距离正在逐渐缩短.阻碍异种移植发展的主要障碍仍是免疫排斥反应.本文试就目前异种免疫排斥的研究进展进行综述,希望对未来的临床异种移植研究提供参...     

非协调性异种气管移植的实验研究

目的探索异种气管移植免疫排斥反应特点,为解决供体气管来源提供新方向,并为研究肺移植继发的气道阻塞性疾病(OAD)建立理想的动物模型。方法建立SD大鼠颈部肌肉瓣包裹移植气管模型,以深低温冻储同种异体气管移植为对照,通过组织化学检查,免疫荧光检查,流式细胞术等方法,观察冷冻与非冷冻豚鼠—大鼠非协调性异种气管移植的成活情况,分析其免疫排斥反应的特点和机制。结果颈部肌肉瓣包裹深低温冻储同种异体SD大鼠长期存活。豚鼠—大鼠冷冻异种气管移植最长成活14 d,平均(13.2±0.75)d;新鲜异种气管移植最长成活9 d,平均(8.0±1.09)d。组织学检查,异体移植气管基本正常,气管通畅度大于80%。异种移植气管呈急性排斥反应表现,移植物大量嗜酸粒细胞,淋巴细胞,单核巨嗜细胞浸润;受体IgM,IgG,C3沉积;外周血CD4+T、CD8+T淋巴细胞明显升高;黏膜上皮剥脱,软骨失去活性;气管通畅度小于50%。以上表现随时间延长而加重,冷冻组弱于非冷冻组。结论细胞免疫反应参与的体液免疫反应为主的急性排斥反应是豚鼠—大鼠非协调性异种气管移植免疫反应特点。深低温冻储消减供体抗原,在一定范围内延长异种移植物成活时间。     

异种器官移植的新进展

目的总结异种器官移植的新进展。方法分析近年来异种器官移植进展的文献报道。结果随着免疫生物学的深入研究,异种器官移植取得了长足的进步,并开始应用于临床,但免疫排斥反应的诸多问题仍在探寻之中。结论异种移植为解决器官衰竭患者移植器官短缺的问题展现了广阔的前景,如何更有效地抑制排斥反应及延长移植物生存期是今后研究的重点。     

猪异种抗原与异种移植排斥反应

异种移植已成为当今器官移植的研究热点。移植后严重的排斥反应仍是阻碍异种移植成功的主要问题，供器官血管内皮细胞上的主要异种抗原与异种移植后的一系列排斥反应关系密切。本文将介绍近几年来对半乳糖α１，３－半乳糖在异种移植排斥反应机理方面的研究及相应防治措施。     

猪异种抗原与异种移植排斥反应

异种移植已成为当今器官移植的研究热点。移植后严重的排斥反应仍是阻碍异种移植成功的主要问题，供器官血管内皮细胞上的主要异种抗原（半乳糖α1，3半乳糖）与异种移植后的一系列排斥反应关系密切。本文将介绍近几年来对半乳糖α1，3半乳糖在异种移植排斥反应机理方面的研究及相应防治措施。     

心脏移植的过去、现在和未来

心脏移植是治疗终末期心力衰竭最有效的策略之一。心脏同种移植面临供心保存困难、排斥反应和术后并发症多等诸多问题。经过数十年的研究和实践,大多问题已得到解决,然而器官短缺问题日益凸显。为缓解器官短缺,人工心脏和心脏异种移植方案受到重视,且近年来获得重大进展。人工心脏应用于临床后极大改善了终末期心力衰竭患者的生存率,有望成为终末期心力衰竭的标准疗法。心脏异种移植还面临许多挑战,距离真正应用于临床还很遥远。本文对心脏移植的历史、心脏同种移植的发展、人工心脏的使用和心脏异种移植的进展做一综述,并对心脏移植未来的发展方向进行展望。     

异种移植领域中异种抗原的研究现状

异种移植目前需要解决的主要问题仍是超急排斥反应。异种移植血管内皮细胞上的异种抗原是导致超急排斥反应发生的关键。本文从导种抗原的性质、遗传学特征、分布和作用等方面介绍了近年来在异种移植领域中的研究现状及有可能消除异种抗原的分子生物学技术。     

异种移植中转基因动物策略研究进展

近年来 ,在同种移植研究的基础上 ,异种移植的研究也进行了大量的工作 ,突出的成绩表现在异种移植免疫障碍阶段的划分和定义 ,即超急排斥反应、急性血管排斥 (有时也称延迟排斥 )、细胞排斥或慢性排斥、生理功能及其它。根据异种移植免疫学理论 ,利用转基因技术 ,建立转基因动物克服超急免疫排斥是异种移植研究的又一进步 ,显示转基因动物具有很大的发展前景 ,使异种移植走进临床成为可能。本文将就近年异种移植免疫学理论及根据其机制、利用转基因动物克服免疫排斥研究状况作一综述。     

临床异种大动物器官移植的现状、问题与对策综述

异种植物因可能解决同种异体供器官短缺的问题而成为全球研究热点。但迄今临床异种移植数量少，效果不理想。主要原因是：现有的大型哺乳类动物作粉共者各有优缺点，尚未选出一种理想的动物供者；异种移植后将出现超急性排斥和急性血管性排斥，其后还可能有急性细胞必排斥和慢性排斥；人畜共患疾病和苛些供者动物易患病可能跨越种间屏蔽危及人类受者甚至社区健康；     

The sweets standing at the borderline between allo‐ and xenotransplantation

Animal cells are densely covered with glycoconjugates, such as N‐glycan, O‐glycan, and glycosphingolipids, which are important for various biological and immunological events at the cell surface and in the extracellular matrix. Endothelial α‐Gal carbohydrate epitopes (Galα3Gal‐R) expressed on porcine tissue or cell surfaces are such glycoconjugates and directly mediate hyperacute immunological rejection in pig‐to‐human xenotransplantation. Although researchers have been able to develop α1,3‐galactosyltransferase (GalT) gene knockout (KO) pigs, there remain unclarified non‐Gal antigens that prevent xenotransplantation. Based on our expertise in the structural analysis of xenoantigenic carbohydrates, we describe the immunologically significant non‐human carbohydrate antigens, including α‐Gal antigens, analyzed as part of efforts to assess the antigens responsible for hyperacute immunological rejection in pig‐to‐human xenotransplantation. The importance of studying human, pig, and GalT‐KO pig glycoprofiles, and of developing adequate pig‐to‐human glycan databases, is also discussed.     

Xenotransplantation

BACKGROUND: The success of clinical transplantation has led to a large discrepancy between donor organ availability and demand; considerable pressure exists to develop an alternative source of organs. The use of animal organs for donation is a possible solution that is not yet clinically applicable. METHODS AND RESULTS: A literature review was performed based on a Medline search to find articles on xenotransplantation. Keywords included hyperacute, acute vascular, xenograft rejection combined with concordant and discordant. Additional references cited in these articles from journals not included in Medline were obtained from the British Library. Limited information on unpublished, preliminary work has been included from sources known to the authors, based on their research work in the field. One hundred and forty-six references and four personal communications have been included in this review article. CONCLUSION: A greater understanding of the pathogenesis of xenograft rejection is developing rapidly. Strategies to abrogate hyperacute rejection have proved successful, but control of antibody-driven acute vascular rejection has not yet been achieved. The safety and viability of xenotransplantation as a therapeutic modality are still unproven.     

Xenotransplantation: immunological barriers and strategies to overcome them

Hyperacute and acute vascular rejection of xenografts are well defined barriers to clinical pig‐to‐human xenotransplantation. Enormous progress has been made in recent years to overcome these immunological barriers. For example, transgenic expression of human complement regulatory molecules (e.g. CD46, CD55) in pigs has been shown to be an effective strategy to prevent hyperacute rejection in pre‐clinical models of xenotransplantation. Alpha1,3‐galactosyltransferase knock‐out pigs are available and provide a second possibility to avoid hyperacute rejection mediated by pre‐existing antibodies. Furthermore, transfer of protective genes (e.g. A20, HO‐1) to endothelial cells is expected to reduce their susceptibility to effector mechanisms leading to acute vascular rejection. In addition, the efficiency of strategies to avoid coagulation/thrombosis after pig‐to‐human xenotransplantation (e.g. transgenic expression of human thrombomodulin, CD39) is currently tested. Thus, for further development of clinical xenotransplantation immunological concepts are now required facilitating the control of human anti‐pig cellular immune responses. Our group focuses on the inhibition of human anti‐pig T cell responses by targeting “negative” costimulatory pathways. We tested the hypothesis that overexpression of the human negative costimulatory ligands PD‐L1 and PD‐L2 on pig antigen presenting cells will result in reduced human anti‐pig T cell responses. The data so far show that (i) human CD4⁺ T cells respond with reduced proliferation and cytokine synthesis to PD‐L1/PD‐L2 expressing pig cells, (ii) PD‐L1/PD‐L2 pig transfectants induce human regulatory T cells (T_reg) which suppress the activation of conventional T cells, and (iii) PD‐L1/PD‐L2 expressing pig cells are protected from lysis mediated by CD8⁺ human cells. Together these observations support the assumption that transgenic expression of human PD‐L1 and/or PD‐L2 in pig cells and tissues could be an approach to prevent T cell reactivity after pig‐to‐human xenotransplantation. Supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (Transregio Forschergruppe “Xenotransplantation”, FOR 535).     

A highly reproducible cervical cuff technique for rat‐to‐mouse heterotopic heart xenotransplantation

Xenotransplantation is an effective way to solve the problem of donor shortage in clinical transplantation. However, clinical use of xenotransplantation is currently limited due to immunological challenges such as acute vascular rejection and cell‐mediated rejection. To finally surpass this immunological barrier, more preclinical research is needed into the molecular mechanisms of rejection and the possible effects of new immunosuppressants. Our aim was to create a refined, highly reproducible protocol to establish the most suitable rat‐to‐mouse heterotopic heart transplantation model using the cuff technique.     

Progress in multiple genetically modified minipigs for xenotransplantation in China

Pig‐to‐human organ transplantation provides an alternative for critical shortage of human organs worldwide. Genetically modified pigs are promising donors for xenotransplantation as they show many anatomical and physiological similarities to humans. However, immunological rejection including hyperacute rejection (HAR), acute humoral xenograft rejection (AHXR), immune cell–mediated rejection, and other barriers associated with xenotransplantation must be overcome with various strategies for the genetic modification of pigs. In this review, we summarize the outcomes of genetically modified and cloned pigs achieved by Chinese scientists to resolve the above‐mentioned problems in xenotransplantation. It is now possible to knockout several porcine genes associated with the expression of sugar residues, antigens for (naturally) existing antibodies in humans, including GGTA1, CMAH, and β4GalNT2, and thereby preventing the antigen‐antibody response. Moreover, insertion of human complement‐ and coagulation‐regulatory transgenes, such as CD46, CD55, CD59, and hTBM, can further overcome effects of the humoral immune response and coagulation dysfunction, while expression of regulatory factors of immune responses can inhibit the adaptive immune rejection. Furthermore, transgenic strategies have been developed by Chinese scientists to reduce the potential risk of infections by endogenous porcine retroviruses (PERVs). Breeding of multi‐gene low‐immunogenicity pigs in China is also presented in this review. Lastly, we will briefly mention the preclinical studies on pig‐to‐non‐human primate xenotransplantation conducted in several centers in China.     

Aspects of histocompatibility testing in xenotransplantation

Xenotransplantation, using genetically-modified pigs for clinical organ transplantation, is a solution to the organ shortage. The biggest barrier to clinical implementation is the antigenicity of pig cells. Humans possess preformed antibody to pig cells that initiate antibody-mediated rejection of pig organs in primates. Advances in genetic engineering have led to the development of a pig lacking the three known glycan xenoantigens (triple-knockout [TKO] pigs). A significant number of human sera demonstrate no antibody binding to TKO pig cells. As a result of the TKO pig's low antigen expression, survival of life-supporting pig organs in immunosuppressed nonhuman primates has significantly increased, and hope has been renewed for clinical trials of xenotransplantation.It is important to understand the context in which xenotransplantation's predecessor, allotransplantation, has been successful, and the steps needed for the success of xenotransplantation. Successful allotransplantation has been based on two main immunological approaches – (i) adequate immunosuppressive therapy, and (ii) careful histocompatibility matching. In vivo studies suggest that the available immunosuppressive regimens are adequate to suppress the human anti-pig cellular response. Methods to evaluate and screen patients for the first clinical xenotransplantation trial are the next challenge. The goal of this review is to summarize the history of histocompatibility testing, and the available tools that can be utilized to determine xenograft histocompatibility.     

Xenotransplantation of the liver]

The development of pigs transgenic for human regulators of complement activation resulted in the nearly total elimination of episodes of hyperacute rejection following discordant solid organ xenotransplantation. Following discordant heart or kidney transplantation, in subhuman primates, graft survival rates of up to several months can be observed. In contrast to these organs, the xenotransplantation of the liver is associated with the inherent problem of the immunological and metabolic compatibility of the large variety of xenoproteins generated. Based on a review of data mainly derived from experimental ex-vivo xenoliver perfusions in patients with hepatic coma, whole organ orthotopic or heterotopic liver xenotransplantation currently is not likely to become a relevant option for the treatment of patients with endstage liver failure. In contrast, clinical studies utilizing different forms of bioartificial liver assist devices are currently underway. Based on preliminary data published, this form of liver support therapy might enter the clinic in the near future.