Congenital abnormalities in the offspring of pregnant women with type 1, type 2 and gestational diabetes mellitus: A population‐based case‐control study

To estimate the risk of structural birth defects (i.e. congenital abnormalities [CA]) in the offspring of pregnant women with type 1 (DM‐1), type 2 (DM‐2) and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and to check the efficacy of recent specific care of diabetic pregnant women in the reduction of DM‐related CA. Comparison was made of the occurrence of medically recorded types of diabetes mellitus in pregnant women who had malformed fetuses/newborns (cases) and who delivered healthy babies (controls) in the population‐based Hungarian Case‐Control Surveillance System of Congenital Abnormalities, 1980–1996. In the case group, which included 22 843 offspring, there were 79 (0.35%) pregnant women with DM‐1, 77 (0.34%) pregnant women with DM‐2 and 120 (0.53%) pregnant women with GDM. The control group comprised 38 151 newborns, and 88 (0.23%), 141 (0.37%) and 229 (0.60%) pregnant women with DM‐1, DM‐2 and GDM, respectively. The total rate of cases with CA was higher only in the DM‐1 group (adjusted OR with 95% CI: 1.5, 1.1–2.0) and within four specific types/groups: isolated renal a/dysgenesis, obstructive CA of the urinary tract, cardiovascular CA and multiple CA; namely, caudal dysplasia sequence. The risk of total CA was lower in the present study compared to the risk in previous studies and the DM‐1‐related spectrum of CA was also different. There was no higher risk of total CA in the offspring of pregnant women with DM‐2 and GDM. The certain part of maternal teratogenic effect of DM‐1 is preventable with appropriate periconceptional and prenatal care of diabetic women.     

Neonatal macrosomia and hypoglycaemia in children of mothers with insulin-treated gestational diabetes mellitus.

All newborn children to mothers with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) in the county of Orebro were investigated during a one year prospective study. Neonatal macrosomia (birthweight greater than 3 SD) was observed in 27% of children of mothers with GDM and was significantly correlated to the cord C-peptide concentration. Hypoglycaemia (B-glucose less than 1.5 mmol/l) was observed in 38% of the children, most frequently two hours after delivery. Hypoglycaemia was not more common in macrosomic children and could not be predicted by the blood glucose concentration of the mother at delivery or by the cord C-peptide level. It is concluded that mothers with GDM must be intensively treated in order to avoid the occurrence of macrosomia in their infants and that the newborn child must be carefully observed and treated in order to avoid neonatal hypoglycaemia.     

Gestational diabetes mellitus and glucose intolerance among Mexican pregnant adolescents

There is an increasing incidence of type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM) among adolescents (especially females), and the serum glucose concentrations in pregnant women <25 years during a 3-h oral glucose tolerance test (3-h OGTT) seem to be lower than those of pregnant women >25 years. Among 115 Mexican pregnant adolescents (<18 years) we analyzed their serum glucose concentrations during: a) 1-h 50-g glucose challenge test (GCT) performed at 24-28 weeks of gestation (n = 103) or at 29-35 weeks of gestation (n = 12); b) A standard 3-h OGTT performed 3-5 days later. Eight adolescents had an abnormal GCT, three of whom also had an abnormal 3-h OGTT. Sixteen adolescents (13 with previously normal GCT) had an abnormal 3-h OGTT, 15 classified as GGI and one as gestational DM (GDM). Serum glucose concentrations in adolescents with GGI were higher than in adolescents with normal 3-h OGTT: a) at 60 and 120 min during the 3-h OGTT (p < 0.001); and b) when expressed as the area under the glucose curve (p < 0.001). Adolescents with GGI had serum glucose concentrations during the 3-h OGTT similar to adult, non-diabetic pregnant Mexican women. It is suggested that GGI in pregnant adolescents may represent an early sign of a future deterioration in glucose metabolism, leading to a higher risk for GDM in future pregnancies and/or type 2 DM in adulthood. Thus, the current criteria to diagnose GDM in adults may not completely apply to adolescents, especially in ethnic groups with high risk for glucose abnormalities and considering the frequency of multiparous adolescents, especially in developing countries.     

Long-term effects of diabetes during pregnancy on the offspring

Background: Many epidemiological and experimental studies have proven that some adult diseases might have their origin in fetal life. It has been also hypothesized that intra-uterine environment in pregnancy complicated with diabetes might influence the development of obesity, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases in the offspring.
Objectives: To assess glucose metabolism, insulin secretion, and prevalence of obesity in the offspring of mothers with pregestational diabetes mellitus (PGDM) and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and to evaluate the relationship between maternal metabolic control during pregnancy and metabolic disturbances in children.
Subjects: Children of mothers with PGDM (n = 43) and GDM (n = 34) were examined at 4–9 yr of age and compared with the control group (n = 108; metabolic parameters available for n = 29).
Methods: The incidence of overweight and obesity, impaired glucose tolerance, and insulin resistance were analyzed based on anthropometric and biochemical measurements. Statistical analysis was performed with statistica package.
Results: In children of GDM mothers, body mass index z-score (0.81 ± 1.01 vs. −0.04 ± 1.42 PGDM vs. 0.07 ± 1.28 control group) and insulin resistance indices (homeostasis model assessment index – insulin resistance 1.112 vs. 0.943 PGDM vs. 0.749 control group) were significantly higher than in other groups. Obesity and insulin resistance were also most frequent in GDM group [not significant (NS)]. In addition, we observed the relationship between maternal hemoglobin A1c and mean glycemia in perinatal period and insulin resistance in children. There was not such correlation for the class of maternal diabetes.
Conclusion: Children born to mothers with gestational diabetes seem to be at risk for obesity and metabolic disturbances.     

Maternal type 1 and gestational diabetes: postnatal differences in insulin secretion in offspring at preschool age

Background: It is well known that children born to mothers with diabetes in pregnancy are more likely to develop metabolic abnormalities in later life. Most prior studies have not differentiated between offspring of mothers with type 1 diabetes (T1DM) and gestational diabetes (GDM) or lack a control group of non‐exposed offspring. Subjects: Offspring of T1DM (n = 16), GDM (n = 22) and mothers without diabetes (n = 25) born at Oulu University Hospital. Aim: To assess insulin secretion and insulin resistance in the offspring of T1DM and GDM at preschool age in comparison with offspring of non‐diabetic mothers. Methods: Anthropometric measurements and intravenous glucose tolerance testing were performed. First‐phase insulin response (FPIR) and homoeostasis model assessment (HOMA) values were calculated. Pregnancy and birth data were analysed in relation to later metabolic parameters in all three groups using one‐way analysis of variance (anova ) and analysis of covariance (ancova ). Results: At a mean age of 4.9 yr, offspring of T1DM had increased fasting serum insulin concentrations (p = 0.044), FPIR (p = 0.034) and HOMA‐B values (p = 0.008) compared with offspring of GDM or with offspring of healthy controls (statistically non‐significant). The GDM gained least weight during pregnancy, and when adjusted for maternal weight gain during pregnancy, there were no statistically significant differences between study groups. Conclusions: Prenatal exposures to maternal type 1 and gestational diabetes may have different effects on postnatal glucose metabolism in the offspring assessed at a mean age close to 5 yr. Maternal weight gain in pregnancy may affect the postnatal glucose metabolism in the offspring.     

Effect of spontaneous gestational diabetes on fetal and postnatal hepatic insulin resistance in Lepr(db/+) mice

Infant macrosomia is a classic feature of a gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) pregnancy and is associated with increased risk of adult obesity and type II diabetes mellitus, however mechanisms linking GDM and later disease remain poorly understood. The heterozygous leptin receptor-deficient (Lepr(db/+)) mouse develops spontaneous GDM and the fetuses display characteristics similar to infants of GDM mothers. We examined the effects of GDM on maternal insulin resistance, fetal growth, and postnatal development of hepatic insulin resistance. Fetal body weight on d 18 of gestation was 6.5% greater (p < 0.05) in pups from ad libitum-fed db/+ mothers compared with wild-type (WT) controls. Pair-feeding db/+ mothers to the intake of WT mothers normalized fetal weight despite less than normal maternal insulin sensitivity. More stringent caloric restriction reduced insulin and glucose levels below WT controls and resulted in fetal intrauterine growth restriction. The level of hepatic insulin receptor protein was decreased by 28% to 31% in both intrauterine growth restriction and fetuses from ad libitum-fed GDM mothers compared with offspring from WT mothers. In 24-wk-old adult offspring from GDM mothers, body weight was similar to WT offspring, however, the females from GDM mothers were fatter and hyperinsulinemic compared with offspring from WT mothers. Insulin-stimulated phosphorylation of Akt, a key intermediate in insulin signaling, was severely decreased in the livers of adult GDM offspring. Hepatic glucose-6-phosphatase activity was also inappropriately increased in the adult offspring from GDM mothers. These results suggest that spontaneous GDM in the pregnant Lepr(db/+) mouse is triggered by overfeeding, and this effect results in obesity and insulin resistance in the livers of the adult offspring. The specific decrease in Akt phosphorylation in livers of adult offspring suggests that this may be a mechanism for reduced insulin-dependent physiologic events, such as suppression of hepatic glucose production, a defect associated with susceptibility to type II diabetes mellitus.     

儿童 1型糖尿病 30年临床特征及随访观察

目的 分析儿童1型糖尿病（T1DM）的临床特征,探讨该病对儿童生长发育的影响程度及后期并发症发生的情况。方法 对发病年龄在13个月至14．7岁,经实验室检查确诊为T1DM的210例患儿的临床特征进行了回顾性分性,并对99例患儿进行了1～24年的并发症、生长发育、死因随访。结果 因单纯糖尿病人院者47例（22．4％）;伴酮血症入院者69例（32．9％）;伴酮症酸中毒入院者94例（44．7％）,其中农村患儿78例。起病时有诱因者43例,其中自停胰岛素15例。酮症酸中毒患儿住院时间明显比单纯糖尿病患儿长（P〈0．05）。随访的99例中出现各种并发症50例,其中以微血管病变发生率最高。病程长易并发各种并发症（P〈0．05）,病后的监测方法与并发症的发生也明显相关。患儿组身高明显低于对照组（P〈0．05）。结论 酮症酸中毒是儿童糖尿病的基本特征;病程长易并发各种并发症;加强对儿童糖尿病患者的血糖检测和病后教育,将对儿童糖尿病的治疗起重要作用。     

上海市卢湾区青少年2型糖尿病患病率调查

[摘要] 目的：通过调查获得上海地区青少年2型糖尿病患病率及相关高危因素。 方法：对上海市卢湾区12所中学，共10442名中学在校生进行晨尿尿糖筛查，对尿糖阳性者进行尿糖复查，并进行空腹血糖及OGTT检查，以确诊糖尿病。对确诊的糖尿病患儿进行糖尿病临床分型诊断，并收集2型糖尿病患儿家族史、出生史、既往史及饮食习惯等资料。统计上海地区青少年2型糖尿病患病率并分析其高危因素和基本特征。 结果： 1.第一次尿糖阳性人数为125人，第二次尿糖阳性人数为15人；2.发现2型糖尿病患儿5名，其中男性3名，女性2名，11～14岁2名，15～18岁3名；3.随机抽取其中一所中学，同时进行OGTT检查，空腹及2小时血糖达糖尿病诊断标准者2名，且与尿糖筛查结果相符；4.2型糖尿病患病率为4.79／10,000，男性为4.34／10，000，女性为5.68／10,000，按年龄分11～14岁为3.87／10,000，15～18岁为5.69／10，000；5.筛查出的2型糖尿病患儿抗体检查（GADAB、ICA及IAA）结果均阴性；6.本次筛查出的2型糖尿病患儿体重指数均属肥胖或超重范围，且均有2型糖尿病家族史。 结论：上海地区青少年2型糖尿病患病率较高，且随年龄增大呈增高趋势，女孩患病率较男孩高，肥胖及有糖尿病家族史是青少年2型糖尿病的高危因素。     

Childhood obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus

Until recently, the majority of cases of diabetes mellitus among children and adolescents were immune-mediated type 1a diabetes. Obesity has led to a dramatic increase in the incidence of type 2 diabetes (T2DM) among children and adolescents over the past 2 decades. Obesity is strongly associated with insulin resistance, which, when coupled with relative insulin deficiency, leads to the development of overt T2DM. Children and adolescents with T2DM may experience the microvascular and macrovascular complications of this disease at younger ages than individuals who develop diabetes in adulthood, including atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, stroke, myocardial infarction, and sudden death; renal insufficiency and chronic renal failure; limb-threatening neuropathy and vasculopathy; and retinopathy leading to blindness. Health care professionals are advised to perform the appropriate screening in children at risk for T2DM, diagnose the condition as early as possible, and provide rigorous management of the disease.     

妊娠糖尿病母亲儿激素水平的变化

妊娠期糖尿病(gestational diabetes mellitus,GDM)的发病率逐年上升,既往认为糖尿病母亲儿的异常主要由宫内高血糖引起,越来越多的研究发现即使GDM孕妇血糖控制较好,仍易分娩巨大儿及出现围生期并发症,目前普遍认为与某些激素的异常分泌有关.大量研究表明妊娠期糖尿病母亲儿的多种激素水平均发生了改...     

HLA-DRB1*08 allele may help to distinguish between type 1 diabetes mellitus and type 2 diabetes mellitus in Mexican children

BACKGROUND: It may be difficult to distinguish type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) from type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in the pediatric population. Autoantibodies may help to differentiate both types of diabetes, but sometimes these are positive in patients with T2DM and negative in patients with T1DM. The human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-DR genotype has been associated with T1DM and with T2DM only in adults and in determined cases. AIM: To determine the differences in HLA class II allele frequencies in Mexican children with T1DM and T2DM. METHODS: We included 72 children with T1DM, 28 children with T2DM, and 99 healthy controls. All were Mexican, and diabetes was diagnosed according to the clinical and laboratory criteria established by the Expert Committee on the Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus. The HLA-DRB1 typing was performed using polymerase chain reaction-sequence-specific oligonucleotide probe and polymerase chain reaction sequence-specific primers. RESULTS: We found an increased frequency of HLA-DRB1*08 and a decreased frequency of HLA-DRB1*04 in the group with T2DM vs. T1DM [p = 0.0001, odds ratio (OR) = 10.58, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 3-40.8 and p = 0.0006, OR = 0.24, 95% CI = 0.11-0.53, respectively]. No significant differences were found between HLA-DRB1 alleles in T2DM vs. controls. In the group with T1DM, there was a significantly increased frequency of the HLA-DR4 and HLA-DR3 alleles relative to controls (p = 0.0000001, OR = 3.59, 95% CI = 2.2-5.8 and p = 0.00009, OR = 4.66, 95% CI = 2.1-10.3, respectively). CONCLUSION: There are significant differences in the HLA profile in Mexican children with T1DM and T2DM. HLA typing could play a role in the differentiation between both types of diabetes in this population.     

母亲妊娠糖尿病与子代孤独症谱系障碍发生风险的关联分析

目的 探讨母亲妊娠糖尿病暴露与子代孤独症谱系障碍（autism spectrum disorder,ASD）发生的关联。方法 采用病例对照研究方法,招募221例ASD儿童与400例健康儿童纳入研究。采用问卷调查及访谈形式收集儿童一般情况、家庭社会经济学特征、母亲孕产史、母亲孕期疾病暴露等情况,采用多因素logistic回归分析探讨母亲妊娠糖尿病暴露与子代ASD发生的关联,并探讨子代性别和妊娠糖尿病暴露对子代ASD的发生是否存在交互作用。结果 ASD组母亲妊娠糖尿病患病比例显著高于对照组（16.3% vs 9.4%,P=0.014）。校正性别、胎龄情况、出生方式、产次、母亲文化程度等变量后,母亲妊娠糖尿病暴露是子代ASD发生的危险因素（OR=2.18,95%CI:1.04～4.54,P=0.038）;在校正以上变量的基础上,进一步校正孕早期复合维生素服用、孕前3个月叶酸服用和辅助生殖等变量后,结果趋势未发生改变,但未见统计学意义（OR=1.94,95%CI:0.74～5.11,P=0.183）。妊娠糖尿病暴露与子代性别对子代ASD的发生存在交互作用（P<0.001）;性别分层分析显...     

儿童2型糖尿病及糖尿病前期患病率研究

目的：了解近10年2型糖尿病（T2DM）和肥胖儿童中糖尿病（DM）前期的患病情况及T2DM的发病趋势。方法：对2000年10月至2010年9月住院且新诊断的DM以及肥胖患儿的临床资料进行回顾性分析。结果：（1）共诊断DM患儿503例,其中T2DM 31例。前后5年比较,T2DM构成比则从0.05‰上升到0.18‰（P<0.01）。与前5年相比,近5年T1DM病例数增加了1.35倍,T2DM增加了4.20倍,T2DM构成比的增长幅度大于1型糖尿病（T1DM）（P<0.05）。（2）1301例肥胖儿童接受口服葡萄糖耐量试验,其中29例确诊为T2DM,255例为DM前期。DM前期255例中,合并脂代谢紊乱133例,非酒精性脂肪肝病138例,高血压53例。结论：近5年T1DM和T2DM患病率均有明显增加,T2DM的增长快于T1DM。肥胖儿童DM前期的发生率较高,潜在发生T2DM以及心血管病变风险大。     

Childhood onset of diabetes mellitus. Report on hospital cases

Onset of diabetes mellitus (DM) during childhood and adolescence is still relatively uncommon in Indonesia compared to many other countries in Europe and the American continent. Two surveys done in two big cities in Indonesia (Semarang, 1974 and Surabaya, 1977) showed a prevalence of 0.2-0.26% in the age group of 6-20 years. In our clinic we have seen 28 patients with DM from 1973-1988. All were insulin dependent. The youngest was 1 year, the oldest 15 years of age. The peak age group was 6-10 years. Male/female ratio was 1:3. Fifteen children experienced ketoacidosis of whom 6 had it more than once. Two children had major thalassemia, both died. Six other patients died due to severe infections and inadequate treatment. One girl of 5 years had Grave's disease. Most of the patients belonged to the low socio-economic group for whom adequate treatment was not always possible.     

Carnitine metabolism in diabetes mellitus

In diabetes mellitus (DM), increased fatty acids have negative effects on pancreatic beta-cell functions, in addition to enhanced mitochondrial transportation of fatty acids related to decreased insulin levels. The aim of this study was to evaluate lipid metabolism in children with DM by measuring plasma fatty acids and carnitine fractions to reveal relationships between carnitine status and increased fatty acid oxidation. Increased plasma fatty acids (except for arachidonic acid, there were no significant differences in the ratio of each specific fatty acid to total fatty acids), lipoprotein (a), acyl carnitine levels and urinary total and free acyl carnitine excretion, and decreased plasma free carnitine levels, were found in children with DM. There were no correlations between the duration of DM or HbA1c and study parameters. It is recommended that plasma free carnitine determinations should be made even if the patient has good metabolic control.     

Neurocognitive functioning in preschool‐age children with type 1 diabetes mellitus

Patiño‐Fernández AM, Delamater AM, Applegate EB, Brady E, Eidson M, Nemery R, Gonzalez‐Mendoza L, Richton S. Neurocognitive functioning in preschool‐age children with type 1 diabetes mellitus. Neurocognitive functioning may be compromised in children with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM). The factor most consistently implicated in the long‐term neurocognitive functioning of children with T1DM is age of onset. The pediatric literature suggests that glycemic extremes may have an effect on the neurocognitive functioning of children, but findings are mixed. The purpose of this study was to compare the neurocognitive functioning of young children with T1DM diagnosed before 6 yr of age and healthy children (i.e., without chronic illness). Additionally, in the children with T1DM, we examined the relationship between their neurocognitive functioning and glycemic control. Sixty‐eight (36 with T1DM and 32 without chronic illness) preschool‐age children (M age = 4.4 yr ) were recruited and administered a battery of instruments to measure cognitive, language, and fine motor skills. Children with T1DM performed similar to the healthy controls and both groups' skills fell in the average range. Among children with diabetes, poor glycemic control [higher hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c)] was related to lower general cognitive abilities (r = ?0.44,p < 0.04), slower fine motor speed (r = ?0.64,p < 0.02), and lower receptive language scores (r = ?0.39,p < 0.04). Such findings indicate that young children with T1DM already demonstrate some negative neurocognitive effects in association with chronic hyperglycemia.     

Teenage pregnancy in type 1 diabetes mellitus

Carmody D, Doyle A, Firth RGR, Byrne MM, Daly S, Mc Auliffe F, Foley M, Coulter‐Smith S, Kinsley BT. Teenage pregnancy in type 1 diabetes mellitus Younger maternal age at delivery has been linked to adverse reproductive outcomes. Pregnancy complicated by type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) is also associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes. Optimising diabetic glycaemic control prior to pregnancy is known to reduce the rate of congenital abnormalities and improve pregnancy outcomes. Teenage pregnancies are not usually planned and little data exist on teenage pregnancy complicated by T1DM. We sought to identify the glycemic control achieved in teenage pregnancy with T1DM and to clarify if there is an associated increase in adverse pregnancy outcomes compared to those seen in older women with T1DM. We compared outcomes in 18 teenagers (TG) with 582 older women with T1DM (CON) from 1995–2007. TG booked to the combined diabetes‐obstetrical service at a median gestational age of 11 weeks (range 6–22) compared to 7 weeks in CON (range 4–40, p < 0.02). Glycaemic was worse in TG compared to CON at 13, 26 and 35 weeks gestation, despite higher insulin doses. First trimester miscarriage rate did not differ between groups. Major congenital anomaly rate was 6.2% (1/16) compared to 3.2% in CON. This preliminary study has demonstrated that pregnant teenage women with T1DM book later to specialised care and have worse glycaemic control in pregnancy compared to older women with T1DM. This group also appear to be more insulin resistant than older women in early pregnancy. Our data would suggest that teenagers with type 1 diabetes mellitus may constitute a high‐risk group for adverse pregnancy outcomes.     

Host and environmental factors defining the epidemiology of type 1 diabetes mellitus in a group of Lebanese children and young adults

The effect of a number of host and environmental factors on the onset of type 1 diabetes mellitus (DM1) in a group of Lebanese children and young adults was studied. Results showed that DM1 in a group of 253 patients presented no gender preference and that the age of onset was similar in both genders. The overall body mass index reflected good metabolic control. HbA1c had a mean value of 8.98%, suggesting poor glucose control. Family history of DM1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus as well as consanguinity in patients' families were not different from those reported in the literature. Finally, onset of DM1 showed seasonal variation, peaking during winter months. DM1 showed a higher prevalence of onset among children born first and a decreased incidence as birth order increased. This study provides valuable data for the diagnosis, control and prevention of DM1 in children.     

母亲糖尿病及UCP2基因多态性与子代先天性心脏病关联的病例对照研究

目的 探讨母亲糖尿病、解偶联蛋白2基因（UCP2）多态性及两者的交互作用与子代先天性心脏病（CHD）的关系。方法 采用以医院为基础的病例对照研究,选择2018年3月至2019年8月在湖南省儿童医院确诊的464例单纯CHD患儿的母亲为病例组,选择同期住院、无先天畸形的504例患儿的母亲为对照组。通过问卷调查,收集相关暴露信息,同时采集母亲静脉血5 mL,用于UCP2基因多态性检测。采用多因素logistic回归分析探讨母亲糖尿病、UCP2基因多态性及两者交互作用与子代CHD的关联性。结果 多因素logistic回归分析显示,在控制混杂因素后,患有妊娠期糖尿病（OR=2.96,95% CI：1.57~5.59）、有妊娠期糖尿病史（OR=3.16,95% CI：1.59~6.28）和妊娠前患有糖尿病（OR=4.52,95% CI：2.41~8.50）均显著增加子代CHD的风险（P < 0.05）。母亲UCP2基因两个位点rs659366（T/C vs C/C：OR=1.49,95% CI：1.02~2.16;T/T vs C/C：OR=2.77,95% CI：1.67~4.62）和rs660339（A/A vs G/G：OR=2.19,95% CI：1.34~3.58）的多态性与子代CHD的风险存在关联（P < 0.05）。交互作用分析显示,UCP2基因两个位点（rs659366和rs660339）的多态性与母亲糖尿病在子代CHD发生中存在交互作用（P < 0.05）。结论 母亲糖尿病、UCP2基因多态性及其交互作用与子代CHD发病相关。     

Clinical characteristics at presentation of type 1 diabetes mellitus in children younger than 15 years in Croatia

The aim of the study was to determine the clinical and biochemical characteristics of type 1 diabetes mellitus (DM) at presentation in children younger than 15 years in Croatia during a 9-year period, with special attention to diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) incidence. The registered data set comprised blood glucose, pH, serum bicarbonate levels, and clinical symptoms at disease manifestation. During the study period, 692 children were diagnosed with type 1 DM. Polydipsia (96.7%), polyuria (96.05%), and weight loss (82.7%) were the most frequent symptoms anticipating disease detection. Enuresis was recorded in 11.55%. A total of 36.41% patients had DKA (pH < 7.3) at disease onset. During the 9-year period, the percentage of children presenting with DKA at time of diagnosis decreased from 41.67% to 33.33% (z = 1.68, p = 0.046). A positive family history of DM, the only factor with an impact on the DKA incidence rate in our population, lowers the probability of the development of ketoacidosis. This study confirms the importance of the detection of the classic symptoms of polyuria, polydipsia, and weight loss in patients with new-onset type 1 DM. The percentage of patients with DKA at diabetes onset decreased during the observed period but is still high and includes one-third of all patients. This is why in every acutely ill child, especially at a younger age, one should evaluate the possibility of type 1 DM to avoid the development of ketoacidosis.