腹部皮瓣乳房重建术后并发症及危险因素的研究

目的 探讨腹部皮瓣乳房重建的术后并发症及其相关危险因素.方法 对2001年5月至2008年10月接受腹部皮瓣乳房重建的115例患者的资料和术后并发症情况进行回顾性分析.术后观察指标包括:皮瓣全部坏死、皮瓣部分坏死、脂肪坏死、腹壁疝、腹壁膨出、脂肪液化、感染.并对其术后并发症的相关危险因素进行分析.结果 术后并发症的总发生率为17.4%(20/115),未出现皮瓣全部坏死、腹壁疝、腹壁膨出等严重并发症.皮瓣并发症为脂肪坏死6例(5.2%)、皮瓣部分坏死5例(4.3%)和感染1例(0.9%),供区并发症为脂肪液化8例(7.0%)和感染3例(2.6%).年龄、肥胖和手术时机对于术后并发症的发生率无影响.吸烟者、既往有放疗史者、带蒂横行腹直肌肌皮瓣组术后并发症的发生率较高,但未达到统计学意义.结论 在熟练掌握显微外科技术的情况下,实施腹壁下动脉穿支皮瓣乳房重建更有利于降低术后并发症.术前有吸烟或放疗史的患者应慎重考虑做腹部皮瓣乳房重建,而年龄、肥胖等因素不应成为腹部皮瓣乳房重建的禁忌.     

Predictors of morbidity following free flap reconstruction for cancer of the head and neck

BACKGROUND: Free flap reconstruction of head and neck cancer defects is complex with many factors that influence perioperative complications. The aim was to determine if there was an association between perioperative variables and postoperative outcome. METHODS: We evaluated 185 patients undergoing free flap reconstruction following ablation of head and neck cancer between 1999 and 2001. Demographic, laboratory, surgical and anesthetic variables were analyzed using univariate and multivariable techniques. RESULTS: Ninety-eight patients (53%) developed complications, of which 74 were considered major, giving a major morbidity rate of 40%. Predictors of major complications were increasing patient age, ASA class, and smoking. Predictors of medical complications were ASA class, smoking, age and crystalloid replacement. Predictors of surgical complications were tracheostomy, preoperative hemoglobin, and preoperative radiotherapy. CONCLUSION: Patient age, comorbidity, smoking, preoperative hemoglobin, and perioperative fluid management are potential predictors of postoperative complications following free flap reconstruction for cancer of the head and neck.     

Experiences with microsurgical tissue transfers in elderly patients

The combination of advances in microsurgery and the improvement of anesthetic management with increased understanding of the physiology of preoperative and postoperative care has significantly raised the upper age limit for free-flap transfer in elderly patients. Despite pessimistic opinions regarding elderly patients who have poor recovery potential and decreased physiological reserves, the unique feature of free-tissue transfer is that it allows the transfer of well-vascularized tissue to defects in a single-stage procedure, and leads to improved quality of life. In this report, a retrospective analysis of 55 patients aged 50 and older who underwent microsurgical tissue transfer is presented. Hospital and our own records were used to review various parameters. The preoperative medical status of each patient was assessed using the American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) Classification of Physical Status. Each patient's preoperative medical records, age, sex, transferred tissue type, and length of operation were outlined. Postoperative recorded parameters were the fate of flaps and the short-term postoperative outcome, including surgical complications, medical morbidity, and death within 30 days of surgery. Fifty-eight microvascular tissue transfers were performed in 55 consecutive patients. The study comprised 38 male and 17 female patients, with a mean age of 64.8 years. ASA classification status was class 1 for 15 patients, class 2 for 26 patients, and class 3 for 14 patients. Twenty-five flaps were used for lower extremity reconstruction, 32 flaps were used for head and neck reconstruction, and 1 was used for breast reconstruction. The average operative time was 5.7 h, ranging between 2-13 h. There were 14 major medical complications, resulting in an overall medical complication rate of 25%. There were 3 deaths within 30 days postoperatively. Thus, the overall surgical mortality rate was 5.4%. The longer operation times were associated with the development of postoperative total medical and surgical complications (P = 0.008). While the relationship between ASA class and medical complications was significant (P = 0.0007), no significant relation was determined between ASA class and surgical complications (P = 0.66). It was revealed that the greater the age group, the greater the occurrence of postoperative medical complications (P = 0.0001). The relationship between postoperative surgical complications and age groups was not significant (P = 0.07). It was also demonstrated that the advanced age of patients was associated with a higher ASA class (P = 0.0017). Eleven flaps required reoperation for vascular compromise. While 10 of these were salvaged with vascular anastomosis revisions, one flap was lost. Thus the overall flap success rate was 98.3%. In conclusion, if a patient's medical problems do not constitute a handicap, age itself should not be considered a barrier to free-flap transfer. It is important to be familiar with preoperative medical problems and possible postoperative medical complications in order to achieve a successful outcome. Contrary to what is generally suggested, surgical complications do not constitute a special consideration in older patients.     

The pectoralis major myocutaneous flap in head and neck reconstruction. Analysis of complications

Sixty-seven patients underwent 73 pectoralis major myocutaneous flap procedures for the immediate reconstruction of defects after resection of head and neck cancers. Thirty-six patients experienced a total of 50 complications for an overall complication rate of 54 percent. There were 3 instances of total flap necrosis, 9 of partial flap necrosis, 12 orocutaneous fistulas, 9 suture line separations, 8 neck wound complications, 1 donor site complication, and 8 mandibular replacement complications. Most complications were minor and did not require a second procedure for correction; however, 36 percent did require a second operation. Eight of 10 patients in whom a metal appliance was placed to restore mandibular continuity required the removal of that appliance due to either flap necrosis, fistula formation, or exposure. Based on our experience, we conclude that attention to flap design, operative technique, and post-operative management were useful in reducing the incidence of complications. We also conclude that a metal appliance was an unsatisfactory means of restoring mandibular continuity when utilized beneath a pectoralis major myocutaneous flap. Although the overall incidence of complications was high, the actual incidence of flaps failing to accomplish their intended purpose and requiring secondary repair was acceptable. The pectoralis major myocutaneous flap was reliable in the reconstruction of defects in the head and neck region.     

Reconstruction in the head and neck regions with free radial forearm flaps and split-rib bone grafts

Fifty patients with wound defects in the head and neck region underwent reconstruction with the free radial forearm flap. Mandible defects in 17 patients were reconstructed by split-rib bone grafts. Radiotherapy was administered to 44 patients preoperatively. The free flap was successful in 49 patients, and there was one case of partial flap necrosis. The free flap is soft, thin, and movable. The split-rib bone graft was successful in 15 patients, and there was one case of partial graft necrosis and one case of complete necrosis. Postoperative complications were decreased by 50 percent when compared with the complication rate when split ribs were covered by forehead flaps, deltopectoral flaps, or oral mucosa. Finally, the functional and cosmetic results were excellent.     

Comparative study of the postoperative complications of microvascular surgery in elderly and young patients

Free flap reconstruction of complex defects has revolutionized cancer and trauma treatment and offers a reliable and efficient method for reconstructing tissue defects. We analyzed the donor, flap, and systemic complications in an aging group and in a group of younger patients to identify whether age is an important factor in complication rates. This study was a retrospective review of the medical records of 43 consecutive patients who underwent free flap reconstructions. Patients were divided into two groups according to age (group A: younger than 60 years, group B: 60 years or older). We analyzed the free flap types and donor site, flap, and postoperative systemic complications. Statistical analyses were performed to determine the influence of age on complication rate. Donor site complications developed in three cases in group A and in three cases in group B. Flap complications occurred in 17 cases in group A and in 5 cases in group B. Systemic complications occurred in two cases in group A and in five cases in group B. Age did not have a statistically significant impact on free flap complications, and old age was not a risk factor for free flap surgery.     

Free tissue transfers in head and neck reconstruction: Complications,outcomes and strategies for management of flap failure: Analysis of 2019 flaps in single institute

Background: Free tissue transfer has become the preferred option for complex reconstructions in head and neck cancer ablation. This study reviewed the surgical outcome and analyzed the evolution of microsurgical head and neck reconstruction over 20 years in single institute. Patients and Methods: A total of 1,918 patients underwent microsurgical head and neck reconstructions in 20‐year period. The surgical outcome and complications among these 2,019 flaps (1,223 anterolateral thigh flaps, 372 fibula flaps, 353 radial forearm flaps, 12 jejunal flaps, and 59 others) were retrospectively reviewed and analyzed. Results: A total of 201 cases required emergent surgical re‐exploration and the overall flap success rate was 96.2%. Venous insufficiency was the most common cause for re‐exploration. Other major complications included fistula formation (5.4%), partial flap necrosis (7.5%), and infection (17.8%). The fibula flap had frequent complications compared with soft tissue flaps. The familiarity to the ALT flap had minimized complications and allowed for widely versatile uses. Conclusion: Free tissue transfer is shown to be highly reliable option for head and neck reconstruction. For soft tissue defect, ALT flap is the first choice. Fibula flap is ideal for bone defect reconstruction. In case of complex composite defects, double flaps, which include ALT and fibula flaps could reconstruct bone and soft tissue defects simultaneously with high success rate. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Microsurgery 34:339–344, 2014.     

Scapula osteocutaneous free flap reconstruction of the head and neck: impact of flap choice on surgical and medical complications

BACKGROUND: The scapula osteocutaneous free flap is frequently used to reconstruct complex head and neck defects given its tissue versatility. Because of minimal atherosclerotic changes in its vascular pedicle, this flap also may be used as a second choice when other osseous flaps are not available because of vascular disease at a preferred donor site. METHODS: We performed a retrospective chart review evaluating flap outcome as well as surgical and medical complications based upon the flap choice. RESULTS: The flap survival rate was 97%. The surgical complication rate was similar for the 21 first-choice flaps (57.1%) and the 12 second-choice flaps (41.7%; p = .481). However, patients having second-choice flaps had a higher rate of medical complications (66.7%) than those with first-choice flaps (28.6%; p = .066). Age and the presence of comorbidities were associated with increased medical complications. All patients with comorbidities that had a second-choice flap experienced medical complications, with most being severe. CONCLUSIONS: The scapula osteocutaneous free flap has a high success rate in head and neck reconstruction. Surgical complications occur frequently regardless of whether the flap is used as a first or second choice. However, medical complications are more frequent and severe in patients undergoing second-choice flaps.     

The versatile extended pericranial flap for closure of skull base defects

OBJECTIVE: We sought to demonstrate the technical aspects of the extended pericranial flap and its versatility in reconstruction of a variety of skull base defects. STUDY DESIGN: We conducted a retrospective chart review of 32 patients who underwent reconstruction of skull-base defects with an extended pericranial flap by the senior author (Y.D.) from September 1997 to July 2003. METHODS: Patients with skull base defects after trauma or extirpative surgery were reconstructed with either a lateral- or an anterior-based vascularized extended pericranial flap. Variables and outcomes measured included: the size and anatomical location of the defect, need for other flaps, preoperative and/or postoperative radiation therapy and/or chemotherapy, bone flap necrosis, hardware exposure, wound dehiscence, postoperative cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leak, and meningitis. RESULTS: There was no evidence of flap failure, 2 cases of transient (3 to 4 days) CSF leak without resultant meningitis, 3 patients with hardware exposure, and 2 patients with hydroxyapatite infection. The 2 transient cases of CSF leak both resolved without further surgical intervention or the placement of a lumbar drain. CONCLUSION: Both the lateral and anteriorly based extended pericranial flaps are reliable and versatile flaps associated with minimal morbidity and a low rate of complications when used to reconstruct defects of the anterolateral skull base.     

Second free tissue transfers in head and neck reconstruction

OBJECTIVE: As the era of free tissue transfer for head and neck reconstruction matures, more patients are requiring second resections and reconstructions. Our objective was to evaluate: patient characteristics, reconstructive options, flap survival, perioperative morbidity, and mortality. STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective chart review. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Sixty-five patients underwent a second free tissue transfer separate from the time of the primary flap. RESULTS: The most common (53%) reason for a second flap was tumor recurrence. The most common flaps used were radial forearm and fibula in both the first and second reconstructions. Larger flaps were used in the second reconstruction. In-hospital mortality was 4.6 percent; medical complications occurred in 5 percent of patients. Flap survival was 97 percent; 13 percent of second flaps returned to the operating room for complications. Eight patients had a third free flap. CONCLUSION: A second free tissue transfer is a viable resource in head and neck reconstruction. Acceptable rates of flap survival and complications are encountered.     

Free-flap resurfacing of tissue defects in the foot due to large gouty tophi

Background: Large or extensive gouty tophi on the feet can cause functional impairment, drainage sinus, and infected necrosis, finally resulting in complex soft‐tissue defects with tendon, joint, bone, nerve, and vessel exposure. Reconstruction of complex soft‐tissue defects of the foot is still challenging. The purpose of this report was to review the outcomes of free‐flap reconstructive surgery for treating the metatarsal joint defects of the feet caused by chronic tophaceous gout. Methods: Ten patients who had large tophus masses (>5 cm) and ulceration on the feet were admitted to our hospital between September 2006 and September 2010. Six patients underwent free‐flap reconstruction after debridement to resurface the circumferential wound, protect the underlying structures, and provide a gliding surface for exposed tendons. The patients' age, sex, comorbidities, location and size of the defects, reconstructive procedures, surgical outcomes, complications, follow‐ups, and recurrence of tophaceous gout were reviewed and recorded. Results: The mean patient age was 49.8 years (range, 36–72 years). The average skin defect size was 92.2 cm². Five patients were treated using free anterolateral thigh flaps, and 1, using a free medial sural flap. These free flaps were safely raised and showed excellent functional and cosmetic results, with a mean follow‐up of 31.7 months (range, 7–50 months). Conclusion: Chronic tophaceous gout can cause severe skin infection and necrosis, even resulting in deformity or sepsis if left untreated. Surgical debridement is inevitable in patients with extensive wounds. We reconstructed the large, ulcerative skin and soft‐tissue defects on the dorsum of the foot by performing free‐flap reconstruction after adequate debridement and achieved good functional and cosmetic results. © C 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Microsurgery, 2011.     

Bilobed fibula flap for reconstruction of through-and-through oromandibular defects

BACKGROUND: The role of fibula free flaps for reconstruction of through-and-through oromandibular defects is examined. METHODS: Thirty-four patients underwent reconstruction of through-and-through oromandibular defects using fibula free flaps that contain large, bilobed skin paddles for simultaneous reconstruction of intraoral mucosa and external skin. We examined the incidence of wound healing complications, the need for revision reconstructive surgery, and factors affecting the incidence of complications. RESULTS: Wound healing complications occurred in 50% of patients. There was a relatively high incidence of partial flap necrosis (26%) and revision surgery (41%). The area of the flap skin paddle was significantly associated with the risk of partial flap necrosis and the need for revision surgery. CONCLUSIONS: Many through-and-through oromandibular defects can be successfully reconstructed using a fibula free flap that contains a large, bilobed skin paddle. However, wound healing complications are increased when the flap skin paddle area exceeds 300 cm2.     

Thirty-Day Outcomes following Upper Extremity Flap Reconstruction

Introduction  Flap reconstructions of upper extremity defects are challenging procedures. It is important to understand the surgical outcomes of upper extremity flap reconstruction, as well as associations between preoperative/perioperative variables and complications. Materials and Methods  The National Surgical Quality Improvement Program (NSQIP) database was queried for patients from 2005 to 2016 who underwent flap reconstruction of an upper extremity defect. Patient and perioperative variables were collected for identified patients and assessed for associations with rates of any complication and major complications. Results  On multivariate analysis, American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) classification >2, bleeding disorder, preoperative steroid use, free flap reconstruction, wound classification other than clean, and nonplastic surgeon specialty were independently associated with any complications. Bleeding disorder, ASA classification >2, male gender, wound classification other than clean, and preoperative anemia were independently associated with major complications. Free flap reconstruction was associated with increased length of stay, operative time, any complications, transfusions, and unplanned reoperations. Conclusion  There is an association between complications in patients undergoing upper extremity free flap reconstruction and ASA classification >2, preoperative anemia, preoperative steroid use, bleeding disorders, and contaminated wounds. Male patients may require more thorough counseling in activity restriction following reconstruction. Free flaps for upper extremity reconstruction will require increased planning to reduce the chance of complications.     

Reconstruction of complex oncologic chest wall defects: a 10-year experience

The repair of complex chest wall defects presents a challenging problem for the reconstructive surgeon. Although the majority of such defects could be repaired with the use of local and regional musculocutaneous flaps, more complicated cases require increasingly sophisticated reconstructive techniques. This study reviews the experience at a single cancer center with chest wall reconstruction over a decade. A retrospective review was undertaken for each patient who underwent chest wall reconstruction from 1992 to 2002. Patient demographics and variables, including pathologic diagnosis, extent of resection, size of defect, method of reconstruction, and outcome were evaluated. There was a total of 113 patients, 88 females and 25 males. The average age was 58 years (range, 19-88 years). The most common diagnoses were breast cancer and sarcoma. The average area of the chest wall defect after resection was 266 cm. One hundred fifty-seven musculocutaneous or muscle flaps were performed for reconstruction of the chest wall. Eleven percent of patients underwent reconstruction with autologous free tissue transfer. One hundred six patients underwent a single operation. Seven patients required a second operation for salvage of a complication. In 19 cases (15%), more than 1 flap was used simultaneously to complete the reconstruction. Eighty-four percent of the patients achieved stable chest wall reconstruction with no complications. Seven patients (4%) had partial (>10%) flap loss. The most common remaining postoperative complications were delayed wound healing (3% of patients), infection (2.5%), and hematoma (2.5%). Immediate chest wall reconstruction is safe, reliable, and can most often be accomplished with 1 operation. A variety of flaps, both single and in combination, could be used to achieve definitive coverage of the chest wall after extirpative surgery. The reconstructive choice is dependent on factors such as size of the defect, location on the chest wall, arc of rotation of the flap, and availability of recipient vessels. Based on this single institutional experience over a decade, an algorithm to chest wall reconstruction is provided.     

乳腺癌术后游离腹直肌肌皮瓣乳房再造

目的 评估乳腺癌术后游离横向腹直肌肌皮瓣（transverse rectus abdominis myocutaneousflap,TRAM）再造乳房的近期疗效.方法 2003年7至11月期间,我们在美国得克萨斯州大学圣安东尼奥科学健康中心整形重建外科共进行乳腺癌术后游离TRAM皮瓣再造乳房12例,平均年龄43.5岁,平均体重68.6kg,其中乳腺癌术后一期乳房再造2例（16.7%）、延期再造10例（83.3%）,游离皮瓣的血管蒂为对侧腹壁下动静脉,12例患者中选择胸背血管为受区血管的2例、选用胸廓内动静脉为受区血管的10例,再造手术后平均随防时间2.8个月.结果 12例游离TRAM皮瓣再造乳房手术皆顺利完成,手术成功率100%,平均手术时间8.3 h,平均住院时间9.4 d,为了对称行对侧乳房缩小术5例（41.7%）.共发生并发症3例6例次,并发症发生率25%,并发症包括皮下积液积血3例次（50%）、创口延迟愈合2例次（33.3%）,再造乳房部分脂肪坏死1例次（16.7%）,未见皮瓣坏死、腹壁疝、腹部皮肤坏死、创口感染等严重并发症的发生.患者自我评价对再造乳房总体满意者11例（91.7%）,不太满意者1例（8.3%）,无一例患者不满意.结论 乳腺癌术后游离TRAM皮瓣再造乳房安全可靠、整形效果良好,患者对重建的乳房有着较高的满意度.     

游离股前外侧皮瓣修复口腔软组织缺损

目的 探讨分析3种游离股前外侧皮瓣在口腔软组织缺损修复中的临床特点与治疗效果。方法 2008年12月至2010年12月收治67例口腔肿瘤患者,切除肿瘤的同时,应用游离股前外侧皮瓣修复缺损处,包括舌、颊、牙龈、口底,通常将皮瓣的旋股外侧动脉降支与受区的颌外动脉或甲状腺上动脉吻合,伴行静脉与受区的面总静脉或颈外静脉吻合。根据游离股前外侧皮瓣的厚度将其分成3种类型：股前外侧肌皮瓣、股前外侧脂肪筋膜皮瓣和薄型股前外侧皮瓣。结果 67例中股前外侧肌皮瓣为35例,股前外侧脂肪筋膜皮瓣17例,薄型股前外侧皮瓣15例。66例皮瓣存活,成功率为98.5％,其中1例糖尿病患者皮瓣发生小部分坏死,经清创换药后痊愈;1例皮瓣完全坏死。67例皮瓣中41例吻合2条静脉,26例吻合1条静脉。8例出现血管危象：6例为静脉血栓（5例抢救成功、1例皮瓣完全坏死）,1例为术区血肿,1例为穿支血管扭转,经过相应处理,血管危象均得到缓解。术后随访2～ 24个月,平均8.7个月,受区组织缺损修复效果满意,供区创面愈合良好。结论 游离股前外侧皮瓣的受区功能良好,供区并发症少,是一种修复口腔软组织缺损的较为理想的方法。     

A soft-tissue approach to midfacial hypoplasia associated with Treacher Collins syndrome

INTRODUCTION: Treacher Collins syndrome is an autosomal dominant mandibulofacial dysostosis with characteristic hard- and soft-tissue facial abnormalities. These include ocular malformations, ear malformations, and hypoplasia of the facial skeleton, especially of the malar bones and mandible. Traditionally, surgical correction of the facial abnormalities has focused on skeletal reconstruction to restore facial form and symmetry. In this report, we describe the use of customized parascapular free flaps, after standard reconstructive surgeries, for the correction of defects of facial contour in Treacher Collins patients. In most cases, bony reconstruction of the zygoma or periorbita is not required. METHODS: From June 1995 to December 2003, 8 patients with Treacher Collins syndrome underwent microsurgical correction of facial contour using 16 free flaps. In all patients, staged parascapular free flaps were used for reconstruction. The microvascular technique involved a 2-team approach with simultaneous ipsilateral parascapular flap harvest and facial pocket dissection. The flaps were contoured, revascularized (14 superficial temporal vessels, 2 facial vessels), and inset. No vein grafts were used. The patients were followed for a minimum of 1 year, and postoperative evaluation included medical photography, visual assessment, and evaluation by the patient and family. RESULTS: Seven patients had previous facial skeleton correction using craniofacial techniques. The age at operation ranged from 4-19 years. Sixteen parascapular free flaps were used in the 8 patients. Postoperative complications were limited to 1 hematoma. There were no partial or total flap losses. All of the patients had improved facial contour and symmetry. Overlying skin tone and color similarly improved. CONCLUSION: After traditional skeletal reconstruction for the complex craniofacial defects of Treacher Collins syndrome, deficiencies in facial contour and symmetry usually persist. Customized soft-tissue free flaps can be employed to differentially resurface these defects and achieve optimal esthetic results in these challenging patients.     

Cranial-base surgery: a reconstructive algorithm.

Skull-base surgery is associated with a high risk of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leak, infection, and functional and aesthetic deformity. Appropriate reconstruction of cranial-base defects following surgery helps to prevent these complications. Between March 1998 and May 2000, 28 patients (age: 1-68 years) underwent reconstruction of the anterior and middle cranial fossae. The indications for surgery were tumours, trauma involving the anterior cranial fossa, midline dermoid cysts with intracranial extension, late post-traumatic CSF leak, craniofacial deformity and recurrent frontal mucocoele. We used local anteriorly based pericranial flaps (23 flaps, alone or in combination with other flaps), bipedicled galeal flaps (seven patients) and free flaps (nine patients; radial forearm fascial/fasciocutaneous flaps, rectus abdominis muscle flap and latissimus dorsi muscle flap). Follow-up has been 4-24 months. We had no deaths, no flap failure and no incidence of infection. Complications included two CSF leaks, three intracranial haematomas and one pulsatile enophthalmos. All patients had a very good aesthetic result. We present an algorithm for skull-base reconstruction and comment on the design and vascularity of the bipedicled galeal flap. The monitoring of intracranial flaps and the difficulties of perioperative management of free flaps in neurosurgical patients are also discussed.     

A comparison of 99 consecutive vaginal reconstructions: an outcome study

This study compares the outcome of Singapore flap, vertical rectus abdominis musculocutaneous flap (VRAM), and gracilis musculocutaneous flap vaginal reconstruction. A retrospective review of 99 consecutive patients with complete vaginal defects was conducted at the Mayo Clinic from January 1988 to October 2001. All possible complications were determined for each of the 3 reconstructive techniques, along with the effects of radiation and smoking on the respective complication rates. Preoperative and postoperative sexual function and adequacy were compared between each group. Ninety-nine patients ranging in age from 19 to 80 years (mean, 51.6 years) were compared, with a mean follow-up of 28.9 months. Forty-one VRAM, 13 gracilis, and 45 modified Singapore flaps were used for vaginal reconstruction. The majority was due to acquired vaginal defects due to recurrent pelvic malignancy. The overall complication rate was lower following VRAM than either gracilis or Singapore flap reconstructions (13/41, 31.7%; 8/13, 61.5%; and 21/45, 46.7%, respectively). The flap specific complication rate was least in the VRAM group (9/41, 22%; 7/13, 53.8%; and 17/45, 37.8%, respectively). The VRAM had a significant protective effect against the development of postoperative small bowel obstruction. Preoperative sexual activity predicted postoperative activity in 75 of 88 patients (85.2%) and was not affected by the type of reconstruction, although more patients with a Singapore flap required vaginal dilatation to maintain patency. In conclusion, the VRAM has a lower overall and flap-related complication rate compared with either gracilis or Singapore flap reconstruction. It has become our vaginal reconstructive flap of choice.     

Pedicled-perforator (propeller) flaps in lower extremity defects: a systematic review

Pedicled-perforator (propeller) flaps for lower extremity reconstruction have gained popularity due to minimal donor site morbidity, relatively simple surgical technique, and replacement of tissue using "like-by-like" principles. We reviewed and analyzed the clinical use of these flaps in regards to patient age and gender, etiology and location of the defect, size and type of flap, arc of rotation, and complications to determine the reliability of this technique. A systematic review of the PubMed database using search terms to include perforator, pedicled, and propeller flaps in the lower extremity. Data from 15 case series provided 186 cases of pedicled-perforator (propeller) flaps for analysis using Chi-square tests. The Peroneal Artery Perforator (PAP) flaps and Posterior Tibial Artery Perforator (PTAP) flaps were the most frequently used flaps. The overall complication rate was 25.8% and the failure rate was 1.1%. No significant differences were found in complication rate related to age, gender, etiology or location of the defect, type or size of the flap. The most common complications were partial flap loss and venous congestion (11.3 and 8.1%). Pedicled-perforator flaps appear to be a reliable and safe procedure for the coverage soft tissue defects of the lower extremity based on favorable results reported in the literature.