Stature estimation from sternum length using computed tomography–volume rendering technique images of western Chinese

The objective of the present investigation was to generate linear regression models for stature estimation on the basis of sternum length derived from computed tomography–volume rendering technique (CT–VRT) images for Western Chinese. The study sample comprised 288 individuals of Western Chinese, including 124 females and 164 males, with documented ages between 19 and 78 years, and was randomly divided into two subgroups. The linear regression analysis for the calibration sample data yielded the following formulae: male stature (cm) = 137.28 + 1.99*combined length of manubrium and mesosternum and female stature (cm) = 111.59 + 3.51* combined length of manubrium and mesosternum. Pearson's correlation coefficients for the regression models were r = 0.459 and r = 0.541 for the male and female formulae, respectively. The standard errors of the estimate (SEE) were 4.76 cm for the male equation and 6.73 cm for the female equation. The 95% confidence intervals of the predicted values encompassed the correct stature of all specimen in the validation sample. The regression equations derived from the sternum length in the present study can be used for stature estimation and the length of the sternum is a reliable predictor of stature in Chinese when better predictors of stature like the long bones are not available, and the CT–VRT method may be a practical method for stature estimation.     

Stature estimation from the length of the sternum in South Indian males: A preliminary study

Estimation of stature is one of the important initial steps during forensic analysis of human skeletal remains. The aim of the present study was to derive a linear regression formula for estimating stature of adult South Indian males from the length of the sternum. The study included 35 male sternums of South Indian origin dissected from cadavers during medico-legal autopsies. The linear regression equation [Stature = 117.784 + (3.429 × Sternal length)] was derived to estimate the stature from the length of the sternum. The correlation coefficient was 0.638. The standard error of the estimate was 5.64 cm. This preliminary study concludes that the length of the sternum can be used as a tool for stature estimation in adult South Indian males.     

Analysis of stature prediction from foot anthropometry: a South Korean case study

The investigation of footprints or dismembered foot dimensions from the scene of a crime or disaster plays a crucial role in the effort to determine some characteristics of the suspects or victims. Previous studies have shown the importance of foot dimensions for that purpose. However, the foot length and foot breadth were frequently studied; the present research investigated the relationship between stature and diverse foot dimensions such as of the heel, metatarsal edge, instep, metatarsal, and lateral malleolus – in addition to the foot length and foot breadth. The feet of 461 subjects (175 male & 286 Female) were scanned and measured. The mean age of the male participants was 41.6 (from 20 to 69) and 38.4 for female participants (from 20 to 68). A t-test was used to compare the gender difference in each dimension. Pearson’s correlation coefficients were computed to identify correlations among various part measurements and heights. Regression equations were derived using single or multiple variables. Foot length showed the highest relationship in males (R = 0.753) and females (R = 0.433). For males and females, prediction accuracy was highest in the linear regression equation using foot length alone (R² = 0.567 for males, R² = 0.188 for females; SEE ± 4.332 cm for males, ±4.825 cm for females). In addition to foot length, length-related variables such as the distance from the heel to both ends of the metatarsal were also reliable predictors. These research results are expected to be useful information for forensic medicine, and for medical appliance and sports manufacturers.     

Stature estimation formulae from radiographically determined limb bone length in a modern Japanese population

The objective of this study was to derive regression formulae for stature estimation from long limb bones in a Japanese population. Moreover, commonly employed estimation equations, such as that of Fujii, were re-evaluated through application of current data. To construct equations, measurements were conducted on 434 living subjects (342 females and 92 males; 18–59 years old). The whole or maximum length of the femur, tibia, and humerus was determined radiographically using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, which permitted measurement of long bones with no magnification. Regression formulae were constructed for females and males relative to the real body height measured in the erect position. Lower limbs of the femur and tibia were more accurate predictors (R = 0.813–0.903) than the humerus was (R = 0.670–0.708). Multiple regression models were produced for all three bones and the two leg bones, revealing no significant difference between R values. Comparison of these equations with those of earlier studies of Andou and Fujii verified differences in estimated stature, indicating that stature estimation formulae should be constructed based on current data obtained from precise physical measurements. These equations will benefit forensic anthropology and nutrition science for stature estimation of contemporary Japanese individuals.     

Are teeth useful in estimating stature?

Estimating stature is an important step in reconstructive identification of skeletonized and dismembered human remains. While numerous body parts such as the skull and long bones have been used for the purpose, the dentition has seldom been applied. The present study has ventured to ascertain the usefulness of tooth crown measurements in stature prediction. Buccolingual and mesiodistal dimensions of all teeth (except third molars) and stature measurements were obtained from 95 living adults (47 females, 48 males). Correlation analysis revealed that 21 of the 56 tooth crown variables had a low albeit statistically significant correlation to stature (p < 0.05); correlation matrix computed for the crown variables showed significant inter-correlations between most teeth (problem of multi-collinearity). Therefore, instead of regular least square regression analysis, ridge regression was performed for the dentition, which revealed a moderate but statistically significant correlation to stature (R = 0.68; p < 0.0001). The ridge regression equation derived had a standard error of estimate (SEE) of 8.09 cm. The multiple correlation for tooth dimensions is lower to, and the SEE larger than, most other body parts. The moderate correlation is probably due to early completion of growth of tooth crowns vis-à-vis other parameters such as long bones that mature later and have a higher stature-correlation. This indicates that the dentition may be used only as a supplement to more robust indicators of stature.     

Multiplication factor versus regression analysis in stature estimation from hand and foot dimensions

Estimation of stature is an important parameter in identification of human remains in forensic examinations. The present study is aimed to compare the reliability and accuracy of stature estimation and to demonstrate the variability in estimated stature and actual stature using multiplication factor and regression analysis methods. The study is based on a sample of 246 subjects (123 males and 123 females) from North India aged between 17 and 20 years. Four anthropometric measurements; hand length, hand breadth, foot length and foot breadth taken on the left side in each subject were included in the study. Stature was measured using standard anthropometric techniques. Multiplication factors were calculated and linear regression models were derived for estimation of stature from hand and foot dimensions. Derived multiplication factors and regression formula were applied to the hand and foot measurements in the study sample. The estimated stature from the multiplication factors and regression analysis was compared with the actual stature to find the error in estimated stature. The results indicate that the range of error in estimation of stature from regression analysis method is less than that of multiplication factor method thus, confirming that the regression analysis method is better than multiplication factor analysis in stature estimation.     

Stature estimation in Japanese cadavers using the sacral and coccygeal length measured with multidetector computed tomography

We evaluated the relationship between stature and the length of the sacrum and coccyx using multidetector computed tomography (MDCT) and derived regression equations for stature estimation in the modern Japanese population. Two hundred and sixteen Japanese subjects (110 males and 106 females) who underwent postmortem computed tomography with subsequent forensic autopsy between January 2010 and August 2013 were measured. A sagittal-plane image of the sacrum and coccyx was used. Anterior sacral length (ASL) was defined as the linear distance from the anterosuperior edge of the first sacral vertebra (S1) to the anteroinferior edge of the fifth sacral vertebra (S5), and posterior sacral length (PSL) was defined as the linear distance from the posterosuperior edge of S1 to the anteroinferior edge of S5. Anterior sacrococcygeal length (ASCL) was defined as the linear distance from the anterosuperior edge of S1 to the anteroinferior edge of the last coccygeal vertebra (LCV), and posterior sacrococcygeal length (PSCL) was defined as the linear distance from the posterosuperior edge of S1 to the anteroinferior edge of the LCV. The correlation between stature and each parameter was evaluated by simple regression analysis using Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients. Each parameter was significantly and positively correlated with stature among both males and females. Cadaver stature (CS, cm) = 0.43 × PSL (mm) + 143.67 provided the most accurate stature prediction (R = 0.507, SEE = 5.83 cm) in males. CS (cm) = 0.56 × PSCL (mm) + 85.29 provided the most accurate stature prediction (R = 0.659, SEE = 6.68 cm) in females. We conclude that sacral/sacrococcygeal length measured with MDCT is a potentially useful tool for stature estimation, particularly in cases where better predictors such as the long bones are not available.     

Estimation of stature from lengths of index and ring fingers in a North-eastern Indian population

Forensic anthropology involves identification of human remains in a legal situation. Along with the other three parameters of forensic anthropology, i.e., age, sex and ethnicity, stature estimation is an essential element of medico-legal investigations when identifications of unknown dismembered remains are involved. The present study was conducted with an aim to find the correlation between stature and the lengths of the index and ring fingers and to derive linear and multiple regression models for estimation of adult stature from the index finger and ring finger measurements. The subjects chosen for the study were composed of adult individuals belonging to the “Rajbanshi”, an ethnic community of North-eastern India. A total of 500 adults (250 males and 250 females) aged between 18 years and 60 years took part in the study. All the measurements were taken using standard techniques. Stature, index finger length and ring finger length were significantly longer in the males than the females. The correlation coefficient (r) between stature and finger lengths was observed to be positive and statistically significant. Linear and multiple regression models were derived for estimation of stature from a length of index and ring fingers. The predictive accuracy of stature estimation was higher for the females than the males. It was observed that the values of the correlation coefficient (r) and the coefficient of determination (R²) increased in multiple regression models when compared to the linear regression models. The study also focuses on the usability of sex-specific regression models in forensic casework. The study concludes that such regression models, as those derived in the present work, can be of significant utility in the estimation of stature.     

Stature estimation based on radial and ulnar lengths using three-dimensional images from multidetector computed tomography in a Japanese population

The aim of our study was to evaluate correlations between cadaver stature (CS) and radial and ulnar lengths based on three-dimensional (3D) computed tomography (CT) images, and to develop modern regression equations for estimating CS in a Japanese population. Measurements were performed on 245 Japanese subjects (123 males and 122 females) who underwent postmortem CT between May 2011 and December 2013. A 3D reconstructed image was used for assessment. The linear distances of the left radial (LR) and right radial (RR) lengths were measured as a straight-line distance from the most anteroproximal point of the head to the most distal end of the styloid process. The linear distances of the left ulnar (LU) and right ulnar (RU) lengths were measured as a straight-line distance from the most posteroproximal point of the olecranon to the most distal end of the styloid process. The correlation between CS and each parameter (LR, LU, RR, and RU) was assessed using Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients and regression analysis was performed for stature estimation. There were significant correlations between CS and each parameter regardless of sex, indicating that the radial and ulnar lengths measured on 3D CT images can be predictive of stature estimation. Simple regression equations for stature estimation calculated from LR provided the lowest standard error of estimation (SEE) (all subjects, SEE = 4.18 cm; males, SEE = 4.09 cm; females, SEE = 4.21 cm). In addition, multiple regression equations were more accurate and reliable than the single linear regression equations.     

Estimation of stature from facial measurements in northwest Indians

Estimation of stature is one of the important component in identification of human remains in forensic anthropology. The present investigation attempts to estimate stature from seven facial measurements of 300 (173 males and 127 females) healthy subjects between the ages of 18–70 years from Northwest India. Height of all the subjects was measured and facial measurements were taken. Data was subjected to statistical analysis like mean, standard deviation, multiplication factors, Karl Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r), linear and multiple regression analyses using statistical package for social sciences (SPSS). The average height of the subjects was in the range of 154.3–178.3 cm in males and 155.1–168.4 cm in females. Estimated stature calculated by regression analysis of seven facial measurements was almost similar to mean actual stature in both males and females and the difference by using multiplication factors was found to be greater. Standard error of estimation (SEE) computed both by linear and multiple regression analyses was found to be low for the two sexes. Thus we can conclude that regression equations generated from facial measurements can be a supplementary approach for the estimation of stature when extremities are not available.     

Estimation of stature from hand dimensions of north and south Indians

The present study was undertaken to predict the stature of a person using hand length and breadth. The study includes 500 right-hand dominant medical students aged between 20 and 30 years, from northern and southern parts of India, studying in Kasturba medical college, Manipal, India. Hand length was measured 'between the distal wrist crease and the tip of middle finger (HL-1)' and 'between the mid-point of inter-styloid line to the tip of middle finger (HL-2)'. Hand breadth was measured between radial side of the second metacarpophalyngeal joint and ulnar side of the fifth metacarpophalyngeal joint (HB). No significant difference was present in hand dimensions between north and south Indians. When compared between both hands, right-hand dimensions were larger than the left hand, with statistically significant difference in HL-2 and HB. Linear regression equations using hand length is more helpful in estimating stature than the hand breadth. The correlation coefficients ranged from 0.673 to 0.665 and 0.740 to 0.732 in north Indian males and females, respectively. Whereas in south Indians, it ranged from 0.752 to 0.732 and 0.701 to 0.691 in males and females, respectively. Multiple regression equations give better results than linear regression equations. HL-2 gives more accurate results in stature estimation than the HL-1.     

Estimation of stature from radiographic measurement of foot dimensions: Truncated foot length may be more reliable than full foot length

Foot length has been shown to be a reliable dimension for estimation of stature. However, phalanges of the foot are very small bones and their length may not be proportional to person's stature. Thus, we hypothesized that foot length measured excluding the phalanges, the truncated foot length, may be more reliable in stature estimation than full foot length. This study, therefore, aimed at comparing the accuracy of the regression equations derived from the truncated foot length and the full foot length. The study recruited a sample of 32 young adults (16 males and 16 females) aged from 20 to 35 years. Lateral radiographs of the right feet were obtained for each subject in a bilateral standing position while maintaining equal weight on both feet. Standing height of the participants was measured with a stadiometer. Truncated foot length and full foot length were measured on the lateral radiographs of the foot. Independent t-test was used to check for mean differences in the dimensions between genders. Linear regression analysis was used to determine the equations for stature estimation. Intra and inter-observer reliability were calculated from four precision estimates: absolute technical error of measurement (aTEM), relative technical error of measurement (rTEM), coefficient of reliability (Rr) and coefficient of variation (Cv). All the dimensions measured were significantly larger in males than females. Linear regression equations were derived for estimation of stature using both the truncated foot length and full foot length. The regression equations derived from truncated foot length have larger correlation coefficient, coefficient of determination, adjusted coefficient of determination as well as smaller standard error of estimation than those derived from full foot length. All the precision estimates showed that the measurement errors are within acceptable limits. This study suggests that even if the full foot length is available, excluding the phalanges may give more accurate stature estimation.     

Estimation of stature and body weight from footprint dimensions among a female population in Ghana

Footprints recovered from crime scenes are valuable in establishing personal identity (e.g. sex, stature and body weight) in forensic investigations. While standards for doing this have been documented in several populations, no study to date has demonstrated stature and weight estimation standards from footprint dimensions among Ghanaian subjects. The purpose of this study is to verify the utility of footprints in stature and body weight estimation in 50 Ghanaian female students at Koforidua polytechnic, Ghana. Bilateral footprints were obtained from all the study subjects and seven measurements were collected from each footprint. The results indicated a positive correlation between all the footprint dimensions and stature/weight. The correlation coefficients for weight estimation (R = 0.190–0.313) were not as high as stature estimation (R = 0.353–0.676). Linear regression analysis indicated higher error estimates (SEE) for body weight estimation (10.94–11.23 kg) than for stature estimation (6.64–8.66 cm) using these dimensions. This suggests that the estimation of body weight from footprints is not as reliable as stature estimation. Compared with other footprint dimensions, T2 was the best estimate of stature and body weight. Similar studies involving males and females of different age groups across different parts of the country, particularly endogamous populations, are required to confirm these findings among Ghanaians, as elsewhere.     

Stature estimation from scapular measurements by CT scan evaluation in an Italian population

This study evaluated the correlation between scapula size and stature and developed standard equations in order to estimate stature by CT scan evaluation.A total of 200 healthy Italian subjects (100 men and 100 women, mean age 64.2 ± 12.8 years) underwent thoracic CT scan evaluation during pulmonary screening in our department; we measured the stature of each patient with standard anthropometric instruments and then analyzed images to calculate the longitudinal scapular length (LSL) and the transverse scapular length (TSL). The correlation between stature and each parameter measured was analyzed by dividing the population into two groups, males and females, and was examined by simple regression analysis using Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r).Each anthropometric variable showed a significant difference between males and females (p value <0.001). The correlation coefficients (r-values) were LSL = 0.74 and TSL = 0.51 in males and LSL = 0.70 and TSL = 0.48 in females. In both sexes the r-values showed a significant correlation between stature and LSL.Our study demonstrates that scapulae can be used for stature estimation; in our sample LSL was found to have a better correlation with stature then TSL. h_m = 4.247 * LSL + 93.74 and h_f = 4.031 * LSL + 92.38 are the formulae that provide the most accurate stature assessment in males and females respectively.     

Estimation of stature from dimensions of hands and feet in a North Indian population

In medico-legal autopsies, establishing personal identity of the victims is often required. Estimation of stature from extremities and their parts plays an important role in identifying the dead in forensic examinations. The study examines the relationship between stature and dimensions of hands and feet among Rajputs of Himachal Pradesh -- a North Indian endogamous group. The purpose for understanding these examinations was the paucity in the literature of studies that allow the reconstruction of stature from various dimensions of hands and feet amongst Rajputs. Hand length, hand breadth, foot length and foot breadth of 246 subjects comprising 123 males and 123 females ranging in age from 17 to 20 years were taken independently on left and right side of each individual. Statistical analyses indicated that the bilateral variation was insignificant for all the measurements except hand breadth in both the sexes (P<0.01). Sex differences were found to be highly significant for all the measurements (P<0.01). Linear and multiple regression equations for stature estimation were calculated using the above mentioned variables. The correlation coefficients between stature and all the measurements of hands and feet were found to be positive and statistically significant. The highest correlation coefficient between stature and foot length and lowest SEE (standard error of estimate) indicate that the foot length provides highest reliability and accuracy in estimating stature of an unknown individual. The regression equations were checked for their accuracy by comparing the estimated stature and actual stature.     

Stature estimation from hand and phalanges lengths of Egyptians

Estimation of stature from extremities plays an important role in identifying the deceased in forensic examinations. This study examines the relationship between stature and hand and phalanges lengths among Egyptians. Stature, hand and phalanges lengths of 159 subjects, 82 males and 77 females (18–25 years) were measured. Statistical analysis indicated that bilateral variation was insignificant for all measurements. Sex differences were significant for all measurements. Linear and multiple regression equations for stature estimation were calculated. Correlation coefficients were found to be positive, but little finger measurements of male and distal phalanges of female fingers were not correlated with stature. Regression equations were checked for accuracy by comparing the estimated stature and actual stature.     

Estimation of stature from index and ring finger length in a North Indian adolescent population

The identification of commingled mutilated remains is a challenge to forensic experts and hence, a need of studies on estimation of stature from various body parts in different population groups. Such studies can help in narrowing down the pool of possible victim matches in cases of identification from dismembered remains. Studies pertaining to stature estimation among adolescents are limited owing to the ongoing growth process and growth spurt during adolescent period. In view of the limited literature on the estimation of stature in adolescent group, the present preliminary research was taken up to report the correlation between index and ring finger length and stature in a North Indian adolescent population. Three anthropometric measurements; Stature, Index finger length (IFL) and ring finger length (RFL) were taken on the subjects included in the study. Mean stature, IFL and RFL were significantly larger in males than females. Statistically significant correlation was observed between stature, IFL and RFL in right and left hands. Pearson correlation (r) was higher among males than females. Among males and females correlation coefficient was higher for the IFL than the RFL. The present research derives the linear regression models and multiplication factors for estimating stature from IFL and RFL and concludes that the living stature can be predicted from the IFL and RFL with a reasonable accuracy in adolescent population of North India.     

Stature estimation from radiographic sternum length in a contemporary Spanish population

The ability to estimate stature from various parts of the body is essential in medicolegal investigations, particularly in cases in which human remains have been dismembered or mutilated. Therefore, the aim of this study was to generate linear regression models for predicting stature on the basis of sternum length in contemporary Spaniards. Sternal length, or the combined length of the manubrium and mesosternum, was recorded from digital radiographs of the chest plate for 65 males and 52 females. Correlation coefficients for the regression models were r?=?0.391 and r?=?0.461 for the male and female formulae, respectively. The standard errors of the estimate were 6.20 cm for the male equation and 5.56 cm for the female equation. Given these relatively large standard error rates, the derived stature estimation models should only be used when other more accurate skeletal elements, such as intact long bones, are unavailable for analysis.     

Estimation of stature by using lower limb dimensions in the Malaysian population

Estimation of stature is an important step in developing a biological profile for human identification. It may provide a valuable indicator for an unknown individual in a population. The aim of this study was to analyse the relationship between stature and lower limb dimensions in the Malaysian population. The sample comprised 100 corpses, which included 69 males and 31 females between the age range of 20–90 years old. The parameters measured were stature, thigh length, lower leg length, leg length, foot length, foot height and foot breadth. Results showed that the mean values in males were significantly higher than those in females (p < 0.05). There were significant correlations between lower limb dimensions and stature. Cross-validation of the equation on 100 individuals showed close approximation between known stature and estimated stature. It was concluded that lower limb dimensions were useful for estimation of stature, which should be validated in future studies.     

Estimation of stature from footprint and foot outline measurements in Malaysian Chinese

Stature estimation from a footprint has important value in forensic investigation. The present study aims to estimate stature from bilateral footprints and foot outlines collected from 200 consenting Malaysian Chinese (100 males, 100 females) in Malaysia and to generate population-specific equations. Ten length measurements were taken from each foot i.e. five from footprints and five from foot outlines. The results indicated a high significant positive correlation between height and footprint and foot outline lengths. The correlation coefficients (R) in the pooled sample footprint (0.86–0.88) and foot outline (0.87–0.88) are comparatively higher than those of an individual male foot print (0.67–0.68), foot outline (0.72–0.73), and female footprint (0.65–0.69), and foot outline (0.66–0.69). Multiple regression analysis provided a smaller error of estimate and higher correlation coefficient than linear regression analysis. Thus, regression equations were derived for stature estimation from footprint and foot outlines lengths among Malaysian Chinese even when sex remains unknown.