Renal disease and fluid balance in pregnancy

Pregnancy in women with renal disease may be detrimental to maternal renal function and increases the risk of obstetric complications such as pre-eclampsia or intrauterine growth restriction. Women with a preconception glomerular filtration rate of less than 30 ml/min, (serum creatinine >170 μmol/l) have a 1:3 chance of an accelerated decline in renal function and are likely to have small or premature babies. Pre-existing hypertension, proteinuria, recurrent urinary tract infections and poor glycaemic control in women with diabetic nephropathy are all independently, but cumulatively detrimental to maternal and fetal outcome. Women with end-stage renal failure are far more likely to have a successful pregnancy following a kidney transplant compared with those on dialysis. Peripartum fluid balance is especially important for women with renal impairment and pre-eclampsia. Intravascular volume is difficult to assess clinically during pregnancy and invasive monitoring (CVP or pulmonary artery catheter) is often necessary. Immediately after a normal delivery, urine output may transiently fall to less than 100 ml/4 h. Injudicious fluid replacement readily leads to pulmonary oedema, a major cause of maternal death.     

The implications of pre-existing renal disease in pregnancy

Women iwth pre-existing renal deisease who become pregnant are at risk of an accelerated decline in renal function and of developing obstetric complications such as pre-eclampsia or intrauterine growth restriction. Pre-pregnancy advice needs to highlight the risks of these complications and the benefits of antenatal prophylactic measures. In summary, women with a prec-conception glomerular filtration rate of less than 30 ml min⁻¹, (serum creatine > 170 μmol L⁻¹) have a 1:3 chance of an accelerated decline in renal function and are likely to have small or premature babies. Diabetic women, especially those with poor glycaemic control and hypertension, have a similar risk of an accelerated declinein renal function with pre-conceptual serum creatine levels around 125 μmol L⁻¹. Pres-existing hypertension, proteinuria and recurrent urinary-tract infections are all independently, but cumulatively detrimental to maternal and fetal outcome. Women on dialysis have impaired fertility, but those who do conceive need to increase their dialysis regimen so that the pre-dialysis plasma urea is less than 17 mmol L⁻¹. Fertility usually returns to women who receive a kidney transplant, and pregnancy outcome is good if renal function is preserved and hypertension controlled. This paper elaborates on the management of pre-existing renal disease and its complications during pregnancy.     

Adverse obstetric outcome in women with a history of infertility: a retrospective study.

Women with a history of infertility are associated with a higher incidence of adverse pregnancy outcome. This retrospective study reviewed 105 women with a known history of infertility; of these 105 women, 77 (73%) conceived spontaneously and 28 (27%) had assisted conception. Our finding confirms higher perinatal complications; relative ratios (RR) for pre-eclampsia was 4.6 (95% CI=2.1-9.9), intrauterine growth restriction 4.8 (95% CI=1.9-12.0), gestational diabetes 1.8 (95% CI=0.5-5.8), pre-term premature rupture of membrane 2.3 (95% CI=0.6-8.8) and pre-term labour 2.6 (95% CI=1.1-5.9). We postulate that women with a history of infertility are at high risk of such obstetric complications and may benefit from intensified antenatal care.     

First trimester origins of fetal growth impairment

The timing of factors that lead to disorders of fetal growth have been studied for many years. Previous studies have focused on disorders of the "second wave" of trophoblast invasion of myometrial arterioles and on fetal weight gain in the third trimester. Over the last 5 years, clinical studies have shown associations between first trimester ultrasound and biochemical parameters and the risk of later adverse perinatal outcome. First trimester growth restriction is associated with an increased risk of low birth weight, low birth weight percentile for gestational age and extremely preterm birth. This may reflect a defect in early pregnancy placentation and later adverse outcome. Consistent with this hypothesis, low first trimester circulating maternal concentrations of pregnancy-associated plasma protein A, a trophoblast-derived regulator of the insulin-like growth factor system, are associated with an increased risk of later stillbirth, growth restriction, pre-term birth and pre-eclampsia. Even among healthy women having normal pregnancies, first trimester circulating concentrations of pregnancy-associated plasma protein A correlate with the timing of spontaneous labor and the eventual birth weight. These analyses suggest that in some women complications of late pregnancy have their origins in the very earliest weeks of gestation and precede first attendance for prenatal care.     

Management of pregnancy complications in women of advanced maternal age

The average age of women at childbirth in high resource obstetric settings has been increasing steadily for approximately 30 years. Women aged 35 years or over have an increased risk of gestational hypertensive disease, gestational diabetes, placenta praevia, placental abruption, perinatal death, preterm labour, fetal macrosomia and fetal growth restriction. Unsurprisingly, rates of obstetric intervention are higher among older women. Of particular concern is the increased risk of antepartum stillbirth at term in women of advanced maternal age. In all maternal age groups, the risk of stillbirth is higher among nulliparous women than among multiparous women. Women of advanced maternal age (>40 years) should be given low dose aspirin in the presence of an additional risk factor for pre-eclampsia and offered serial ultrasounds for fetal growth and wellbeing. Given the increased risk of antepartum stillbirth, induction of labour from 39 weeks’ gestation should be discussed with woman.     

Pregnancy outcome in Hispanic patients with unexplained positive triple marker screening for Down syndrome

Objective : The objective of this study was to compare pregnancy outcomes in Hispanic patients with a positive serum triple marker screen for Down syndrome and normal fetal karyotype with Hispanic women who had a negative triple marker screen. Methods : This prospective investigation involved Hispanic gravidas who underwent maternal serum screening. A power analysis was performed to determine the sample size. Fifty women with false-positive screens for Down syndrome were matched with a control group of 100 women with a negative screen. Adverse pregnancy outcomes were compared between the two groups. Results : An adverse pregnancy outcome occurred in 14% of the study group and in 13% of controls. There were no statistically significant differences between the two groups in the incidence of preterm labor ( p > 0.5), pre-eclampsia ( p > 0.1), intrauterine growth restriction ( p > 0.5), or fetal demise ( p > 0.5). Conclusion : Hispanic patients with unexplained positive triple marker screen for Down syndrome do not appear to be at increased risk for adverse pregnancy outcomes.     

Outcome of pregnancy in renal allograft recipients

Objective  To evaluate risk factors affecting pregnancy, perinatal outcomes and graft condition in women who underwent renal transplantation. Methods  Retrospective study of 34 pregnancies in 28 renal recipients followed in a single tertiary center from January 1989 to January 2007. Main outcome measures  Pregnancy outcome, kidney allograft function, maternal complications and perinatal outcomes were evaluated in these patients. Results  Mean maternal age at time of pregnancy was 27 ± 5.1 years (18–37) and the interval between transplant and pregnancy varied between 1 and 134 months (mean 51.3 ± 34.2). Most pregnant women (25/28) were submitted to triple immunosuppression during the entire pregnancy. The fetal outcome included 27 live births (79.4%), 2 stillbirths (5.9%), 3 spontaneous abortions (8.8%) and 2 therapeutic abortions (5.9%). The most frequent maternal complications were hypertension in 18 pregnancies, 2 of which ended in pre-eclampsia; urinary tract infections in 10 pregnancies; gestational diabetes mellitus in 3, anemia in 3 and 2 acute graft rejections. The major fetal complications observed consisted of four (13. 8%) intrauterine growth restrictions and two (6.9%) stillbirths. Vaginal delivery occurred in 10 women (34.5%); in the other 19 (65.5%), a cesarean section was performed. Of the 27 successful pregnancies, 11 (40.7%) resulted in term deliveries and 16 (59.3%) in preterm deliveries (range 31–39 weeks). The mean birth weight of the offspring was 2,465 g (range 1,300–3,530). There were no major perinatal complications, but two allograft rejections occurred after pregnancy. Conclusions  This series results are in agreement with those in other studies. Even though pregnancy does not seem to adversely affect short-term renal allograft function, risks of obstetric and perinatal complications seem to be increased. Further studies of long term graft function and pediatric follow-up are needed.     

Pregnancy in uremic patients: an eventful journey

Renal damage, which can be caused by gestational anomalies such as pre-eclampsia, carries a risk of gestational complications; the greatest risk being in women who become pregnant while on hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis. If this rare event occurs, there is a marked increase in the risk of pre-eclampsia, early uterine contractions and hydramnios, hypertensive crisis, preterm delivery and intrauterine growth retard. Furthermore, newborns are almost always of low birthweight. Patients who undergo renal transplantation are another high-risk category. In such cases, the pregnancy itself can compromise the success of the transplant and the immunosuppressive therapy correlated to it can become a threat to the course of the pregnancy and normal fetal growth. Therefore, in view of the lack of appropriate guidelines for the best possible approach to the treatment of women on dialysis or of those with a renal transplantation, it is best to advise these patients against becoming pregnant and/or to provide a valid counselling service illustrating the extreme difficulties and dangers involved in becoming pregnant.     

Impact of early chronic kidney disease on maternal and fetal outcomes of pregnancy

Background.?Elevated serum creatinine is associated with higher maternal and fetal risks; however, the influence of milder degree of renal impairment diagnosed on basis on estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) is less well defined. This study assesses the impact of early chronic kidney disease (CKD) utilizing eGFR in predicting adverse outcomes in women with CKD.

Methods.?We analyzed outcomes of 98 pregnant women with CKD. Women with CKD stage 1 were used as control.

Results.?Women with eGFR of 60–89 ml/min were at an increased risk for deterioration of renal function, preeclampsia, and cesarean section. The odd ratios for composite maternal complication of worsening of renal function or preeclampsia were 6.75 (95% confidence interval (CI), 1.84–24.80) in women with eGFR of 60–89. Similarly, women with an eGFR of 60–89 had a significantly increased risk for intrauterine growth restriction (38.5%), preterm birth (31.2%), and intrauterine fetal death (15.8%). The odds for composite fetal adverse outcomes were 2.91 (95% CI, 1.19–7.09) in women with eGFR of 60–89.

Conclusions.?Early CKD increases the risk of adverse outcomes in pregnancy. Estimated GFR ranging between 60–89 ml/min/1.73 m² is associated with significant maternal and fetal complications. The risk of adverse outcomes in pregnant women with early CKD can be more accurately stratified by using estimated GFR than the serum creatinine alone.     

Prevalence and complications of physical violence during pregnancy

OBJECTIVES: To assess the incidence of self-reported physical violence in pregnancy and describe the association with foeto-maternal complications and birth outcome. METHOD: Seven thousand one hundred and five pregnant women over a 3 year period were assessed for self-reported physical violence. Maternal ante-natal hospitalization, low birth weight and pre-term delivery. Odd ratio (OR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) were calculated to measure association between physical violence, maternal morbidity and birth outcome. RESULTS: The prevalence of physical violence was 21%. Women who reported/experienced physical violence, were more likely to be hospitalized ante-natally for maternal complications such as trauma due to blows/kicks on the pregnant abdomen, abruptio-placenta, pre-term labor and kidney infections. There was a positive association between physical violence during pregnancy and cesarean section, abruptio-placenta, fetal distress, and pre-maturity. CONCLUSION: Physical violence during pregnancy is common and is associated with adverse materno-fetal outcome.     

Relationship between prenatal care and maternal complications in women with preeclampsia: Implications for continuity and discontinuity of prenatal care

ObjectivePrenatal care is associated with better pregnancy outcome and may be a patient safety issue. However, no studies have investigated the types and quality of prenatal care provided in northern Taiwan. This retrospective study assessed whether the hospital-based continuous prenatal care model at tertiary hospitals reduced the risk of perinatal morbidity and maternal complications in pre-eclampsia patients.Materials and MethodsOf 385 pre-eclampsia patients recruited from among 23,665 deliveries, 198 were classified as patients with little or no prenatal care who received traditional, individualized, and physician-based discontinuous prenatal care (community-based model), and 187 were classified as control patients who received tertiary hospital-based continuous prenatal care.ResultsThe effects on perinatal outcome were significantly different between the two groups. The cases in the hospital-based care group were less likely to be associated with preterm delivery, low birth weight, very low birth weight, and intrauterine growth restriction. After adjustment of confounding factors, the factors associated with pregnant women who received little or no prenatal care by individualized physician groups were diastolic blood pressure ≥105 mmHg, serum aspartate transaminase level ≥150 IU/L, and low-birth-weight deliveries. This study also demonstrated the dose–response effect of inadequate, intermediate, adequate, and intensive prenatal care status on fetal birth weight and gestational periods (weeks to delivery).ConclusionThe types of prenatal care may be associated with different pregnancy outcomes and neonatal morbidity. Factors associated with inadequate prenatal care may be predictors of pregnancy outcome in pregnant women with pre-eclampsia.     

Advanced maternal age

The average age of women at childbirth in industrialised nations has been increasing steadily for approximately 30 years. Women aged 35 years or over have an increased risk of gestational hypertensive disease, gestational diabetes, placenta praevia, placental abruption, perinatal death, preterm labour, fetal macrosomia and fetal growth restriction. Unsurprisingly, rates of obstetric intervention are higher among older women. Of particular concern is the increased risk of antepartum stillbirth at term in women of advanced maternal age. In all maternal age groups, the risk of stillbirth is higher among nulliparous women than among multiparous women. Women of advanced maternal age (>40 years) should be given low dose aspirin (in the presence of an additional risk factor for pre-eclampsia) and offered serial ultrasounds for fetal growth and wellbeing; given the increased risk of antepartum stillbirth, induction of labour from 39 weeks’ gestation should be discussed with the woman.     

Pregnancy in chronic renal insufficiency: single centre experience from North India

Background  Renal disease during pregnancy is relatively uncommon. The diagnosis of renal disease before or during pregnancy was only 0.03% in a population-based study of pregnant women with kidney disease. However, there is a paucity of scientific data regarding the general topic of renal disease in pregnancy on which to base clinical management and counselling recommendations. Materials and methods  A retrospective analysis of 14 year period was carried out in a referral hospital in northern India. Pregnant women were analyzed with respect to degree of renal impairment for the effect of renal disease on course of pregnancy, complications during pregnancy and perinatal outcome. Results  Outcome of 30 pregnancies (29 women) was available during the study period of 14 years. Pregnancy outcome was comparable in all types of glomerulonephritis. Progression of the disease during pregnancy was observed in total six patients. Proteinuria was in the range of 800 mg/day to 6.2 g/day (2.802 ± 1.519 g/day). Anemia was identified in 12(46.1%) and 3(7.7%) required multiple blood transfusions. Twenty-four (90%) women developed hypertension during pregnancy. Mild hypertension was seen in 40% patients and, 43.3% had severe hypertension requiring drug therapy. Obstetrical complications included a high frequency of preterm delivery (85%) and caesarean section (30%). Overall fetal survival rate was 77%. Conclusions  Most women with chronic renal disease will have a successful outcome if they receive proper prenatal care. Pregnant women with moderate or severe renal insufficiency have increased rates of complications due to worsening renal function, hypertension, and other obstetrical complications, but fetal survival is high.     

子痫前期孕妇的血清尿酸水平对母胎妊娠结局的预测作用

【摘 要】 目的：探讨子痫前期孕妇分娩前1个月内的血清尿酸水平对预测母胎妊娠结局的价值。方法：选取2014年4月-2015年12月在上海市第六人民医院分娩的152例子痫前期孕妇进行回顾性分析。所有入选者根据子痫前期严重程度、发病孕周分别分为重度组（106例）、非重度组（46例）及早发型组（75例）、晚发型组（77例）。收集孕妇分娩前1个月内的血清尿酸,选取病情最严重时对应的数值;妊娠并发症如胸腹腔积液、肝肾功能不全;围生儿健康指标如新生儿出生体质量、Apgar评分。结果：早发型或重度子痫前期孕妇的血清尿酸水平分别比晚发型或轻度子痫前期孕妇的明显升高（P＜0.01）。通过二分类Logistics回归分析发现：血清尿酸水平升高是子痫前期不良母胎结局的危险因素之一。受试者工作特征（receiver operating characteristic,ROC）曲线进一步表明：血清尿酸水平升高达到388～440 μmol/L,对预测子痫前期不良母胎结局的发生差异有统计学意义（P＜0.01）。结论：血清尿酸水平对评估子痫前期孕妇的不良母胎结局、选择评估终止妊娠时机具有重要的预测价值,需要临床医师予以高度重视。     

The Impact of Isolated Maternal Hypothyroxinemia on Perinatal Morbidity

ObjectiveTo determine whether maternal hypothyroxinemia during early pregnancy is associated with adverse perinatal outcomes.MethodsSerum samples of a prospective cohort of 879 women collected at 15–16 weeks of pregnancy were analyzed for thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) and free thyroxine (T₄) concentrations. Women with TSH levels within the normal reference range (0.15–4.0 mU/L) and free T₄ levels below the 10th percentile of the sample (8.5 pmol/L) were classified as hypothyroxinemic and were compared with euthyroid women (who had normal TSH and free T₄ levels). Thyroid hormone measures were linked to pregnancy outcomes, including small for gestational age (SGA), standardized birth weight z-score, preterm delivery, and Apgar score used as a measure of early neonatal morbidity.ResultsAmong 89 hypothyroxinemic women, there was no evidence of an increased risk for fetal growth restriction, preterm birth, or low Apgar score. The relative risk of delivering an SGA infant was 0.38 (95% CI 0.11 to 1.33), the mean difference in birth weight z-score was 0.035 (95% CI −0.17 to 0.24), and the risk of preterm delivery was 0.79 (95% CI 0.38 to 1.67). None of the hypothyroxinemic women gave birth to an infant with a five-minute Apgar score < 7. When free T₄ levels were substituted for categories of thyroid hormone function, the pattern of results remained unaltered.ConclusionIsolated maternal hypothyroxinemia was not observed to have any adverse effect on fetal growth or pregnancy outcome. This study does not provide evidence to support treatment of this condition to prevent fetal growth restriction or neonatal morbidity.     

Is maternal underweight really a risk factor for adverse pregnancy outcome? A population-based study in London

Objective To determine the maternal and fetal risk of adverse outcome during pregnancy in relation to low maternal body mass index in an unselected population.Design Retrospective analysis.Methods Information for the years between 1988 and 1997 was extracted from a validated maternity database, including all but one of the maternity units in the North West Thames Region; 215,105 completed singleton pregnancies were studied. Comparison of pregnancy outcome was made on the basis of maternal body mass index at booking. There were 176,923 with a normal weight body mass index (= 20 < 25). There were 38,182 with an underweight body mass index (< 20). Comparisons included antenatal complications (e.g. gestational diabetes, pre-eclampsia); intervention in labour, maternal morbidities (e.g. infection, postpartum haemorrhage, pulmonary thromboembolism); and neonatal outcome (admitted to special care baby unit at 24 hour of age, gestation at delivery, birthweight, stillbirth). Data are presented as percentages of outcomes in the normal and underweight groups with adjusted odds ratios and confidence intervals according to body mass index group.Results In the underweight group only antenatal anaemia, preterm delivery and birthweight below the 5th centile were more frequent than in women of normal body mass index. The prevalence of certain complications, including development of gestational diabetes mellitus, pre-eclampsia, obstetric intervention and postpartum haemorrhage, were significantly lower in those with low body mass index.Conclusion Low maternal body mass index is associated with increased prevalence of some pregnancy complications, notably preterm delivery and low birthweight, but overall the outcome is favourable and several adverse outcomes are less common in this group of women.     

How strong is the association between maternal thrombophilia and adverse pregnancy outcome? A systematic review.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether inherited and acquired thrombophilias are associated with adverse obstetric complications. STUDY DESIGN: A systematic review; studies where women with adverse obstetric complications were tested for one or more acquired and inherited thrombophilias were included. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Prevalence of thrombophilia in women with severe pre-eclampsia/eclampsia, severe placental abruption, intrauterine growth restriction or unexplained stillbirth. RESULTS: Compared with controls, placental abruption was more often associated with homozygous and heterozygous factor V Leiden mutation, heterozygous G20210A prothrombin gene mutation, homocysteinaemia, activated protein C resistance or anticardiolipin IgG antibodies. Women with pre-eclampsia/eclampsia were more likely to have heterozygous factor V Leiden mutation, heterozygous G20210A prothrombin gene mutation, homozygous MTHFR C677T mutation, protein C deficiency, protein S deficiency or activated protein C resistance compared with controls. Unexplained stillbirth, when compared with controls, was more often associated with heterozygous factor V Leiden mutation, protein S deficiency, activated protein C resistance, anticardiolipin IgG antibodies or lupus anticoagulant. Women with intrauterine growth restriction had a higher prevalence of heterozygous G20210A prothrombin gene mutation, homozygous MTHFR C677T gene mutation, protein S deficiency or anticardiolipin IgG antibodies than controls. There was wide heterogeneity in the prevalence of thrombophilia between the studies. CONCLUSIONS: Women with adverse pregnancy outcome are more likely to have a positive thrombophilia screen but studies published so far are too small to adequately assess the true size of this association. Screening for thrombophilia should not become standard practice until clear evidence emerges that thromboprophylaxis during pregnancy improves perinatal outcome. Further research into the link between the observed association, causality and heterogeneity is required.     

Obesity-related complications of pregnancy vary by race

Objectives: The first objective was to assess the association of renal function with maternal and fetal pregnancy outcome in women with diabetic nephropathy. The second objective was to examine the feasibility of a multicenter surveillance program to determine the rates of maternal and fetal pregnancy complications in women with diabetic nephropathy, and to study the effect of pregnancy on the natural history of diabetic renal disease. Methods: In order to address the first objective, we analyzed data from women with type 1 diabetes and nephropathy enrolled in the Diabetes in Pregnancy Program at our institution. Women were assigned to one of three groups according to enrolment serum creatinine concentration: ≤ 1.0 mg/dl, > 1.0 to 1.5 mg/dl and > 1.5 mg/dl. A pilot surveillance program at six centers included women experiencing pregnancy complicated by diabetic nephropathy. In both studies, medical and obstetric history, and maternal and neonatal outcomes, were recorded. Statistical analysis included χ², logistic regression and analysis of variance. Results: There were 72 pregnancies in 58 women with diabetic nephropathy who enrolled in the pregnancy program. High serum creatinine concentration at enrolment was associated with delivery before 32 weeks' gestation, very low birth weight and increased incidence of neonatal hypoglycemia, independent of quantity of total urinary protein excretion and glycemic control in any trimester. To date, pilot surveillance data have been obtained from six centers on 16 women. Serum creatinine concentrations ranged from 0.4 to 1.1 mg/dl and creatinine clearance from 32 to 317 ml/min. Gestational age at delivery ranged from 22 to 39 weeks. Conclusions: High serum creatinine concentration at enrolment is a risk factor for adverse maternal and neonatal outcome, independent of quantity of total urinary protein excretion and glycemic control during any trimester. A multicenter surveillance program is needed, in order to study less frequent maternal and neonatal outcomes as well as the long-term effects of pregnancy on the natural course of diabetic renal disease.     

Ambulatory management of chronic hypertension in pregnancy

Chronic hypertension in pregnancy is one of the most common medical diseases affecting pregnancy. It is associated with serious maternal and fetal complications, including superimposed pre-eclampsia, fetal growth restriction, premature delivery, placental abruption, and stillbirth. Baseline evaluation as early as possible is important to differentiate women with essential hypertension from those with severe hypertension, coexisting end-organ damage, and secondary causes of hypertension, as their risks of poor outcomes are increased. An optimal plan for maternal treatment and fetal surveillance can then be formulated. Coordination of care after delivery is important for long-term maternal health and future pregnancies.     

Alport syndrome and pregnancy: a case series and literature review

Purpose

To assess pregnancy outcome in women with Alport syndrome and the impact of pregnancy on the disease progression.

Methods

We describe one of the largest series of pregnancies in Alport syndrome. Seven pregnancies of six women were monitored by a multidisciplinary team of nephrologists and gynecologists. After delivery, patients were followed for at least 3 years. We compare our results with those in the literature.

Results

Pregnancy course was uneventful in the patient with isolated microscopic hematuria. In the other cases, all presenting mild proteinuria at conception, some complications occurred. Proteinuria worsened during the last trimester, reaching nephrotic ranges in five out of six pregnancies and was associated with fluid overload leading to hospitalizations and early delivery. The majority of the newborns had a low birth weight. The two patients with arterial hypertension at conception and twin pregnancy developed pre-eclampsia and renal function deterioration persisted after delivery. The one with pre-pregnancy renal dysfunction reached end-stage renal disease. In the other patients, in which renal function and blood pressure were and remained normal, proteinuria improved after delivery and no signs of disease progression were recorded at last observation.

Conclusions

Our observations suggest that Alport syndrome should be considered a potential risk factor for pregnancy in proteinuric patients due to the development of pre-eclampsia, renal function deterioration, and/or full-blown nephrotic syndrome that results in anasarca, slowing of fetal growth and pre-term delivery. Thus, all women with Alport syndrome should receive pre-conceptional counseling and be kept in close follow-up during pregnancy.