Epidemiology and predictors of infant morbidity in rural Malawi

In rural Malawi, 703 newborns were visited monthly for 1 year to describe the epidemiology and health-seeking behaviour during acute episodes of diarrhoea, respiratory infections (ARI) and malaria. On average, the infants suffered from 1.3 annual episodes (11.0 illness days) of diarrhoea, 1.1 episodes (9.4 days) of ARI and 0.7 episodes (4.8 days) of malaria. Multivariate analysis with polychotomous logistic regression indicated that the amount of morbidity was associated with the child's area of residence, weight in early life, number of siblings, father's marital status and the source of drinking water. Diarrhoea and malaria were most common at 6-12 months of age and during the rainy months whereas respiratory infections peaked at 1-3 months of age and in the cold season. Ten per cent of diarrhoea, 9% of ARI and 7% of malaria episodes lasted for more than 14 days. Fifty-eight infants died, giving case fatality rates of 1% for diarrhoea, 2% for ARI and 4% for malaria. One-third (37%) of the illness episodes were managed at home without external advice. A traditional healer was consulted in 16% of episodes and a medical professional in 55% of episodes. If consulted, traditional healers were seen earlier than medical professionals (median duration after the onset of symptoms 0.7 vs. 1.8 days, P < 0.001). Traditional healers were significantly more commonly used by those families whose infants died than by those whose infants did not die (odds ratio 1.8, 95% CI 1.1, 3.0). Our results emphasise the influence of seasonality, care and living conditions on the morbidity of infants in rural Malawi. Case fatality for diarrhoea, ARI and malaria was high and associated with health-seeking behaviour among the guardians. Future interventions must aim at early and appropriate management of common childhood illnesses during infancy.     

Risk factors for acute respiratory infections in underfives in a rural community

The risk factors for acute respiratory infection (ARI) were investigated in a 6-month study of 366 children under 5 years of age from a rural zone of Delhi, India. Home visits were made to each child enrolled in the study every 2 weeks. 242 children (65.9%) had adequate nutritional status, 95 (26%) had mild malnutrition, and 30 (8.1%) had moderate to severe malnutrition. The annual ARI incidence was 3.27 episodes per child in the moderate to severely malnourished children, 2.82 episodes in mildly malnourished children, and 2.26 episodes in adequately nourished children. Lower respiratory infection was more affected by adverse nutritional status than upper respiratory infection. ARI incidence was also significantly lower among children living in well-ventilated homes (1.79 episodes/child/year) than those living in poorly ventilated homes (2.87 episodes/child/year). Since none of the mothers smoked and adequate breast feeding was practiced by 95% of mothers, the influence of these two risk factors on ARI was not relevant in this study.     

Incidence and risk factors for diarrhoea and acute respiratory infections in urban communities of Pernambuco, Brazil

Magnitude and distribution of Diarrhoea and Acute Respiratory Infections (ARI) in children were studied within a larger broader research that focused on health education. Two household surveys were conducted in a sample of families with at least one child under five years of Recife and Olinda in April-May 1992 and 1994. The total number of children studied was 5,436. The estimated adjusted annual incidence rate (AAIR) of diarrhoea was 2.7 episodes per child. The two-week incidence rate of diarrhoea was 10.2% for both years. Risk factors associated with higher incidence of diarrhoea were age (under two years), lack of sanitation facilities, and absence of electrical appliances in the household. Estimated AAIR of ARI was 9. 5 episodes per child. The two-week incidence rate of ARI was 41.0% in 1992 and 32.6% in 1994. Majority of ARIs affected the upper respiratory tract (75.9%). The only factor consistently associated with a higher risk of ARI was age (under three years). Study results indicate that both pathologies are still an important health problem for children under five in Pernambuco. In particular, in the case of diarrhoea the need for improving the access to basic services, such as water supply and sewage system is urgently needed.     

Effect of vitamin A supplementation on diarrhoea and acute respiratory tract infection in children

To determine the effect of a massive single oral dose of Vitamin A (200,000 IU) supplementation on diarrhoea and acute respiratory infection (ARI), a double blind placebo controlled trial involving 174 children under six years of age (excluding infants) was carried out in a Calcutta slum community. Ninety-one children received vitamin A supplementation (experimental group) and 83 children received a placebo (control group). All the children were followed up for six months by active fortnightly surveillance for occurrence of diarrhoea or ARI and their duration. There was no statistically significant difference in the incidence of diarrhoeal episodes or ARI. However, there was a significant difference (p<0.05) in the average duration of diarrhoea per episode (2.1 vs. 3 days) between the experimental and control groups. Possible beneficial effects of a single oral dose of vitamin A supplementation on the incidence of diarrhoea and ARI could not be demonstrated in the present study.     

Care seeking in Sri Lanka: one possible explanation for low childhood mortality.

This paper examines care-seeking practices of mother caretakers with children less than five years of age in a rural district of Sri Lanka. The study was carried out from June to September 1998, documenting care-seeking practices of mother caretakers in a population of 2248 children in 60 villages. Of the five targeted diseases in the IMCI programme (Integrated Management of Childhood Illnesses) that were the focus of the study, acute respiratory infections (82.0%) and diarrhoea (14.8%) were predominant. Although malnutrition was highly prevalent it was not recognised by mother caretakers as an illness. Findings show that in 65.0% of illness episodes in children the mother caretakers sought outside care and treatment. Caretakers sought treatment from both private and public sectors with the majority seeking care in the private sector. Care seeking of mother caretakers was driven by symptomology. Young children with higher perceived severity and high-risk symptoms were brought to provider care more frequently, although a large percentage of episodes with low-risk symptoms were also brought for outside care. Care seeking was similar across socio-economic groups. The study points out that high care seeking of mother caretakers in Sri Lanka, particularly for illnesses with acute high-risk symptoms and signs, is a plausible explanation for the low level of childhood mortality despite the prevalence of a high rate of malnutrition.     

Antibiotic use,gastroenteritis and respiratory illness in South Australian children

This study examines the incidence of antibiotic-associated diarrhoea (AAD) in children in the community setting. Parents of 965 children aged 4-6 years and resident in rural/semi-rural South Australia completed a questionnaire on socio-demographic factors, and a 6-week daily diary detailing symptoms of gastroenteritis, antibiotic use, respiratory illness, and contact with someone with gastroenteritis. The incidence of AAD was 32.3 %, falling to 23.5% when episodes associated with a respiratory illness were excluded. Respiratory illness in the previous 3 days (OR 6.76, 95% CI 4.87, 9.38), and contact with someone with gastroenteritis in the previous 14 days (OR 1.8, 95% CI 1.48, 2.19), were both associated with gastroenteritis. After adjusting for these, only the first day of antibiotic use was associated with gastroenteritis (OR 3.8, 95% CI 1.8, 8.06). Potential confounding factors, in particular inter-current respiratory illness, need to be considered when examining AAD.     

Acute respiratory infections: a longitudinal study of 151 children in Burkina-Faso

A longitudinal study of 151 children under five years of age was performed in a rural village of Burkina-Faso (West Africa). During systematic examinations by a physician during the rainy season, 44% of the children were found to be ill and 59% of these had an acute respiratory infection (ARI). During the dry season, the rates were 48% and 73% respectively. Weekly interviews by a field worker showed 6.2 attacks of ARI during the six months of the rainy season and 7.0 during the six months of the dry season. Risk factors for ARI were malnutrition assessed by arm circumference, and a high birth rank. At the 'field-dispensary', ARI accounted for 41% of the visits; lower respiratory infections (LRI) accounted for 24%, similar to the proportion of LRI among illnesses found during the systematic examination.     

Acute respiratory infections in children: a community based longitudinal study in south India

A community based longitudinal study was conducted in Malpe, a coastal village of Udupi district, Karnataka state, to investigate acute respiratory infections (ARI) in children. A cohort of 91 children under 3 years of age were followed up for 1 year, leading to 2047 fortnightly observation. On an average every child had 11.3 months of follow up. The overall incidence of ARI was 6.42 episodes per child per year. On an average each episode lasted for 5.06 days. Mean duration of ARI during one year was 32.5 days per child. Most of the ARI episodes in children (91.3%) were of simple Cough & Cold (no pneumonia). However, 8.2% developed pneumonia and only 0.51% had severe pneumonia. Incidence of ARI was almost same in male and female children. There was no significant difference in incidence among various age groups. But the incidence of pneumonia was significantly higher among infants (p<0.00002). Children of poor housing with smoke producing conditions suffered more frequently (p,002).     

2018—2019年上海市浦东新区儿童急性呼吸道感染患病及就诊行为

  目的  了解上海市浦东新区社区儿童急性呼吸道感染（acute respiratory infections,ARI）和流感样症状（influenza like illness,ILI）发生情况及其相关就诊行为特征,并探索其影响因素。  方法  使用横断面研究设计、多阶段随机抽样方法,对上海市浦东新区0~14岁儿童的监护人进行面对面问卷访谈,调查2018―2019年冬春季发生ARI相关情况、就诊行为,并使用多因素Logistic回归分析模型分析其影响因素。  结果  共回收2 375份有效调查问卷,2018-2019年冬春季上海市浦东新区儿童ARI和ILI患病率分别为36.1%（858/2 375）和14.0%（332/2 375）;2~4岁儿童ARI患病率（42.4%）高于其他年龄组（OR=2.072,95% CI:1.482~2.896）;具有呼吸系统基础疾病（OR=2.740,95% CI:1.865~4.025）是儿童ARI患病的危险因素;相较于幼托儿童,散居（OR=0.579,95% CI:0.426~0.785）和在校（OR=0.547,95% CI:0.434~0.688）儿童ARI患病风险较低。儿童ARI相关就诊率和住院率分别为58.5%（502/858）和1.7%（15/858）。2~4岁（OR=0.297,95% CI:0.170~0.521）和5~14岁（OR=0.286,95% CI:0.149~0.549）儿童就诊率均低于1岁以内儿童。影响就诊行为的主要因素为发病症状（发热、咳嗽、咽痛、咳痰和乏力）（均有P < 0.05）;81.1%（407/502）的儿童前往二级以上医疗机构就诊。  结论  上海地区儿童冬春季急性呼吸道感染带来的疾病负担很重,不可忽视。应持续开展基于社区和医疗机构的综合监测以获得更加准确的疾病负担资料,并推行流感、肺炎等呼吸道传染病疫苗接种等防控措施的实施。     

Choosing an appropriate measure of diarrhoea occurrence: examples from a community-based study in rural Kenya.

Epidemiological studies which aim to identify protective or risk factors for diarrhoea may rely on any of several established measures of disease occurrence, including cumulative incidence, (CI), incidence density (ID), and point prevalence (P); each with its own strengths and limitations. Comparison of these measures was afforded by a community-based study in rural Kenya in which the incidence and prevalence of diarrhoea were measured simultaneously but by independent means in the same group of children. In a cohort study, CI and ID among 138 infants (aged 0-6 months) were 26.1% and 1.41 episodes per 100 infant-weeks, respectively. Among 111 toddlers (aged 18-29 months) CI and ID were 39.6% and 1.96 episodes per 100 toddler-weeks, respectively. In a cross-sectional study of these children, the Ps among infants and toddlers were 9.8 and 6.1%, respectively. Data on incident cases required more time and resources to obtain and evidenced more underreporting of diarrhoea episodes relative to the prevalence data. Other community-based studies have reported the ID of diarrhoea five times more often than any other measure, but appear to have calculated ID incorrectly. The infrequency with which CI and P are reported does not reflect their actual utility.     

Duration of day-care attendance and acute respiratory infection

Day-care attendance accounts for an increased frequency of acute respiratory infections (ARI), in numbers of both episodes and hospitalizations. In addition to day-care exposure, risk factors include age, siblings, and crowding. The purpose of this study was to investigate a possible association between duration of day-care exposure and ARI. A cross-sectional study was carried out to compared ARI rates for children exposed to day care and children cared for at home. Children with at least one parent working in a hospital were sampled from the hospital-run day-care center and those cared for at home. An acute respiratory infection was defined as the presence of two or more signs or symptoms in the previous two weeks. Children exposed to the day-care center for 12 to 50 hours a week had a three to five times greater risk of developing ARI than those staying at home. This risk was assessed independently, taking socioeconomic status, age, and number of siblings into account. Risk of respiratory illness and day-care attendance has been described elsewhere, but this study presents original findings related to duration of exposure. With a view towards reducing risk of ARI, improvements should be made in institutional day-care centers in Brazil, where family day care is still not available.     

Acute lower respiratory illness in under-five children in Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil: prevalence and risk factors

This study aimed to determine the prevalence of acute lower respiratory illness and to identify associated factors among children less than five years of age in the city of Rio Grande, southern Brazil. Using a cross-sectional survey, a standardized household questionnaire was applied to mothers or guardians. Information was collected on household conditions, socioeconomic status, and parental smoking. Prenatal care attendance, nutritional status, breastfeeding pattern, and use of health services for the children were also investigated. Data analysis was based on prevalence ratios and logistic regression, using a conceptual framework. Among 771 children studied, 23.9% presented acute lower respiratory illness. The main risk factors were previous episodes of acute lower respiratory infection or wheezing, crowding, maternal schooling less than five years, monthly family income less than US$ 200, four or more people per room, asthma in family members, and maternal smoking. Mothers 30 years or older were identified as a protective factor. These results can help define specific measures to reduce morbidity and mortality due to acute lower respiratory illness in this setting.     

急性呼吸道感染性疾病监测研究

用病史前瞻性研究方法，于１９９１年４月至１９９２年３月对平邑县和高密县四个自然村的１１６４户４３７９人进行了急性呼吸道感染（ＡＲＩ）性疾病监测。共监测４３６５．９２人年，发病率为０．４５４２次／人年，无死亡病例，户发病率６８．９９％，各村发病率０．３７００～０．６３１２次／人年。共监测１８种疾病，以普通感冒、上呼吸道感染、支气管炎发病率最高，具有明显的家庭聚集性。难产、低出生体重、发育差、营养差、吸烟、文盲、人均年收入低、居室通凤差、居室采光差、居住条件差等是与ＡＲＩ发病有关的危险因素。     

Parasitism and diarrhoea in children from two rural communities and marginal barrio in Honduras

In Honduras, one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality among children is diarrhoea, but little is known about its aetiology and risk factors. A prospective longitudinal study of 266 children over a 12 month period in 2 rural villages and a marginal barrio revealed attack rates of 7 episodes per child per year among those less than 36 months of age. The most common parasite was Giardia lamblia, found in 61% of the children and in 29% of 848 episodes of diarrhoea. Chronic diarrhoea was noted in 46.6% of the children and 81% of them were infected with G. lamblia. Multiple infections with 5-10 different species of parasites or commensals were common (47%); no parasites or commensals were found in 17 children (6.4%). No case of acute amoebic dysentery was diagnosed either clinically or parasitologically, although 20% of the children had cysts of E. histolytica in the stools. Other potential parasitic pathogens identified were Cryptosporidium sp. (6.7%), Hymenolepis nana (8%), and Strongyloides stercoralis (2.6%). Dientamoeba fragilis was found in iron haematoxylin smears for the first time in Honduras. Important risk factors recognized included high faecal contamination of the environment, lack of potable water, education and housing in the midst of poverty. The marginal barrio was more affected than the rural villages. Should these factors not be changed or modified, diarrhoea caused by infectious agents will remain an endemic life-threatening problem.     

Healthcare-seeking behaviour for common infectious disease-related illnesses in rural Kenya: a community-based house-to-house survey

Community surveys of healthcare-use determine the proportion of illness episodes not captured by health facility-based surveillance, the methodology used most commonly to estimate the burden of disease in Africa. A cross-sectional survey of households with children aged less than five years was conducted in 35 of 686 census enumeration areas in rural Bondo district, western Kenya. Healthcare sought for acute episodes of diarrhoea or fever in the past two weeks or pneumonia in the past year was evaluated. Factors associated with healthcare-seeking were analyzed by logistic regression accounting for sample design. In total, 6,223 residents of 981 households were interviewed. Of 1,679 children aged less than five years, 233 (14%) had diarrhoea, and 736 (44%) had fever during the past two weeks; care at health facilities was sought for one-third of these episodes. Pneumonia in the past year was reported for 64 (4%) children aged less than five years; 88% sought healthcare at any health facility and 48% at hospitals. Seeking healthcare at health facilities was more likely for children from households with higher socioeconomic status and with more symptoms of severe illness. Health facility and hospital-based surveillance would underestimate the burden of disease substantially in rural western Kenya. Seeking healthcare at health facilities and hospitals varied by syndrome, severity of illness, and characteristics of the patient.     

Unnecessary antibiotic use for mild acute respiratory infections during 28-day follow-up of 823 children under five in rural Vietnam

Few prospective studies regarding antibiotic use for mild acute respiratory infections (ARI) have been conducted in community settings. This paper aimed to assess knowledge of children's caregivers and actual antibiotic use for children under five and to identify factors associated with antibiotic treatment for mild ARIs. Caregivers in 828 households in Bavi, Vietnam, were interviewed using a structured questionnaire assessing both knowledge and practice. Subsequently, 823 children were followed for 28 days to collect information regarding symptoms and drug use. For management of ARIs, only 13% of caregivers demonstrated correct overall knowledge in accordance with standard guidelines. The symptoms of the most recent illness were consistent with mild ARI in 79% of cases, and antibiotics were used in 71% of these. During the 28-day period, 62% of children had been given antibiotics and 63% of antibiotic courses were used for mild ARIs. One-half of the mild ARI episodes and 63% of the children with mild ARIs were treated with antibiotics. Most of the unnecessary antibiotic treatment was recommended by healthcare providers (82%). Most of the children had been administered antibiotics for common colds, although most caregivers believed that antibiotics were not required. Antibiotics were unnecessarily recommended at health facilities in the area.     

Impact of zinc supplementation on subsequent growth and morbidity in Bangladeshi children with acute diarrhoea.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the impact of zinc supplementation during acute diarrhoea on subsequent growth and morbidity in malnourished young children. DESIGN: Double blind randomized controlled clinical trial SETTING: International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh. SUBJECTS: Sixty-five children aged 3-24 months with acute diarrhoea for less than 3 d. INTERVENTION: Either elemental zinc (20 mg/d) in a multivitamin syrup or multivitamin syrup alone divided in three divided daily doses for a period of two weeks. Children were followed up weekly at home to assess subsequent growth and morbidity for a period of eight weeks. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Gain in length and body weight and reduction in diarrhoea and respiratory tract infection. RESULTS: During the follow-up, zinc supplemented children showed significantly greater cumulative length gain (18.9 mm vs 14.5 mm, P <0.03) and comparable body weight gain than the children of the control group. Subsequent length gain was not correlated with initial height in the zinc-supplemented group (r=-0.13), P = 0.5), but was significantly correlated in the control group (r = -0.6, P < 0.0007). Zinc-supplemented and stunted children (< or = 90% length for age n = 18) experienced significantly fewer episodes of diarrhoea (0.07 vs 0.6, P < 0.05) and respiratory illness (1.0 vs 2.4, P < 0.01) compared to the control group. The underweight children (< or = 71% weight/age n = 38) receiving zinc-supplementation also had fewer episodes of diarrhoea (0.4 vs 1.0, P<0.04) and shorter duration of diarrhoeal episodes (1.0 vs 3.0d, P<0.04) compared to their counterparts in the control group. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that a short course of zinc supplementation to malnourished children during acute diarrhoea reduces growth-faltering and diarrhoeal and respiratory morbidity during subsequent two months.     

福建省ARI项目县5岁以下儿童监测结果初步分析

本文对福建省宁化、顺昌两个急性呼吸道感染（简称ＡＲＩ）项目县５岁以下儿童１９９４年１月１日～１９９５年１２月３１日间的监测资料进行整理、分析。结果表明：（１）项目县１９９４年ＡＲＩ发病率为８１．４２％；１９９５年发病率为７３．６１％。（２）ＡＲＩ四季都有发病，高峰大致在春、秋两季。（３）２月龄以内ＡＲＩ婴儿患重度肺炎和极重症的比例为１９．１４％，是２～１１月龄组的７倍、１～４岁组的１７倍；而２月龄以内死于肺炎的婴儿是５岁以下死于肺炎儿童总数的５５．１７％。故２月龄以内婴儿的急性呼吸道感染防治及减少死亡是降低肺炎病死率的关键。（４）边远、贫困地区应是ＡＲＩ管理的重点。