Comparative evaluation of Kodak EDR2 and XV2 films for verification of intensity modulated radiation therapy

Film dosimetry provides a convenient tool to determine dose distributions, especially for verification of IMRT plans. However, the film response to radiation shows a significant dependence on depth, energy and field size that compromise the accuracy of measurements. Kodak's XV2 film has a low saturation dose (approximately 100 cGy) and, consequently, a relatively short region of linear dose-response. The recently introduced Kodak extended range EDR2 film was reported to have a linear dose-response region extending to 500 cGy. This increased dose range may be particularly useful in the verification of IMRT plans. In this work, the dependence of Kodak EDR2 film's response on the depth, field size and energy was evaluated and compared with Kodak XV2 film. Co-60, 6 MV, 10 MV and 18 MV beams were used. Field sizes were 2 x 2, 6 x 6, 10 x 10, 14 x 14, 18 x 18 and 24 x 24 cm2. Doses for XV2 and EDR2 films were 80 cGy and 300 cGy, respectively. Optical density was converted to dose using depth-corrected sensitometric (Hurter and Driffield, or H&D) curves. For each field size, XV2 and EDR2 depth-dose curves were compared with ion chamber depth-dose curves. Both films demonstrated similar (within 1%) field size dependence. The deviation from the ion chamber for both films was small forthe fields ranging from 2 x 2 to 10 x 10 cm2: < or =2% for 6, 10 and 18 MV beams. No deviation was observed for the Co-60 beam. As the field size increased to 24 x 24 cm2, the deviation became significant for both films: approximately 7.5% for Co-60, approximately 5% for 6 MV and 10 MV, and approximately 6% for 18 MV. During the verification of IMRT plans, EDR2 film showed a better agreement with the calculated dose distributions than the XV2 film.     

Dosimetric accuracy of Kodak EDR2 film for IMRT verifications

Patient-specific intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) verifications require an accurate two-dimensional dosimeter that is not labor-intensive. We assessed the precision and reproducibility of film calibrations over time, measured the elemental composition of the film, measured the intermittency effect, and measured the dosimetric accuracy and reproducibility of calibrated Kodak EDR2 film for single-beam verifications in a solid water phantom and for full-plan verifications in a Rexolite phantom. Repeated measurements of the film sensitometric curve in a single experiment yielded overall uncertainties in dose of 2.1% local and 0.8% relative to 300 cGy. 547 film calibrations over an 18-month period, exposed to a range of doses from 0 to a maximum of 240 MU or 360 MU and using 6 MV or 18 MV energies, had optical density (OD) standard deviations that were 7%-15% of their average values. This indicates that daily film calibrations are essential when EDR2 film is used to obtain absolute dose results. An elemental analysis of EDR2 film revealed that it contains 60% as much silver and 20% as much bromine as Kodak XV2 film. EDR2 film also has an unusual 1.69:1 silver:halide molar ratio, compared with the XV2 film's 1.02:1 ratio, which may affect its chemical reactions. To test EDR2's intermittency effect, the OD generated by a single 300 MU exposure was compared to the ODs generated by exposing the film 1 MU, 2 MU, and 4 MU at a time to a total of 300 MU. An ion chamber recorded the relative dose of all intermittency measurements to account for machine output variations. Using small MU bursts to expose the film resulted in delivery times of 4 to 14 minutes and lowered the film's OD by approximately 2% for both 6 and 18 MV beams. This effect may result in EDR2 film underestimating absolute doses for patient verifications that require long delivery times. After using a calibration to convert EDR2 film's OD to dose values, film measurements agreed within 2% relative difference and 2 mm criteria to ion chamber measurements for both sliding window and step-and-shoot fluence map verifications. Calibrated film results agreed with ion chamber measurements to within 5 % /2 mm criteria for transverse-plane full-plan verifications, but were consistently low. When properly calibrated, EDR2 film can be an adequate two-dimensional dosimeter for IMRT verifications, although it may underestimate doses in regions with long exposure times.     

Dosimetric performance of an enhanced dose range radiographic film for intensity-modulated radiation therapy quality assurance

Film-based quality assurance (QA) is an important element of any intensity modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) program. XV2 film is often used for IMRT QA, however, it has saturation and energy response limitations which hinder accurate film dosimetry. A new commercially released ready-pack film has been introduced that has an extended dose range (EDR2), reportedly allowing measured doses above 600 cGy without saturation. Also, this film may have less energy dependence due to its composition. The purpose of this paper is to study and compare the two types of film with respect to absolute dose accuracy for IMRT plans, percent depth dose accuracy for square fields between 2 and 20 cm, ability to measure composite plan isodoses and single beam fluence maps for IMRT cases, and sensitivity to processor variations over time. In 19 IMRT patient QA tests, the EDR2 film was able to achieve an absolute dose accuracy of better than 2% vs over 4% for XV2 film. The EDR2 film was able to reproduce ionization chamber and diode-measured percent depth doses to 20 cm depth generally to within 1% over the range of field sizes tested compared to about 10% for the XV2 film. When compared to calculations, EDR2 film agreed better than XV2 film for both composite plan isodoses and single beam fluence intensity maps. The EDR2 film was somewhat more resistant to processor changes over time than the XV2 film, with a standard deviation of dose reproducibility of less than 2% compared to 6%, respectively.     

Evaluation of Kodak EDR2 film for dose verification of intensity modulated radiation therapy delivered by a static multileaf collimator

A new type of radiographic film, Kodak EDR2 film, was evaluated for dose verification of intensity modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) delivered by a static multileaf collimator (SMLC). A sensitometric curve of EDR2 film irradiated by a 6 MV x-ray beam was compared with that of Kodak X-OMAT V (XV) film. The effects of field size, depth and dose rate on the sensitometric curve were also studied. It is found that EDR2 film is much less sensitive than XV film. In high-energy x-ray beams, the double hit process is the dominant mechanism that renders the grains on EDR2 films developable. As a result, in the dose range that is commonly used for film dosimetry for IMRT and conventional external beam therapy, the sensitometric curves of EDR2 films cannot be approximated as a linear function, OD = c * D. Within experimental uncertainty, the film sensitivity does not depend on the dose rate (50 vs 300 MU/min) or dose per pulse (from 1.0 x 10(-4) to 4.21 x 10(-4) Gy/pulse). Field sizes and depths (up to field size of 10 x 10 cm2 and depth = 10 cm) have little effect on the sensitometric curves. Percent depth doses (PDDs) for both 6 and 23 MV x rays were measured with both EDR2 and XV films and compared with ion chamber data. Film data are within 2.5% of the ion chamber results. Dose profiles measured with EDR2 film are consistent with those measured with an ion chamber. Examples of measured IMRT isodose distributions versus calculated isodoses are presented. We have used EDR2 films for verification of all IMRT patients treated by SMLC in our clinic. In most cases, with EDR2 film, actual clinical daily fraction doses can be used for verification of composite isodose distributions of SMLC-based IMRT.     

Optimal sensitometric curves of Kodak EDR2 film for dynamic intensity modulated radiation therapy verification

Purpose:

To investigate the optimal sensitometric curves of extended dose range (EDR2) radiographic film in terms of depth, field size, dose range and processing conditions for dynamic intensity modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) dosimetry verification with 6 MV X-ray beams.

Materials and methods:

A Varian Clinac 23 EX linear accelerator with 6 MV X-ray beam was used to study the response of Kodak EDR2 film. Measurements were performed at depths of 5, 10 and 15 cm in MedTec virtual water phantom and with field sizes of 2x2, 3x3, 10x10 and 15x15 cm². Doses ranging from 20 to 450 cGy were used. The film was developed with the Kodak RP X-OMAT Model M6B automatic film processor. Film response was measured with the Vidar model VXR-16 scanner. Sensitometric curves were applied to the dose profiles measured with film at 5 cm in the virtual water phantom with field sizes of 2x2 and 10x10 cm² and compared with ion chamber data. Scanditronix/Wellhofer OmniPro^TM IMRT software was used for the evaluation of the IMRT plan calculated by Eclipse treatment planning.

Results:

Investigation of the reproducibility and accuracy of the film responses, which depend mainly on the film processor, was carried out by irradiating one film nine times with doses of 20 to 450 cGy. A maximum standard deviation of 4.9% was found which decreased to 1.9% for doses between 20 and 200 cGy. The sensitometric curves for various field sizes at fixed depth showed a maximum difference of 4.2% between 2x2 and 15x15 cm² at 5 cm depth with a dose of 450 cGy. The shallow depth tended to show a greater effect of field size responses than the deeper depths. The sensitometric curves for various depths at fixed field size showed slightly different film responses; the difference due to depth was within 1.8% for all field sizes studied. Both field size and depth effect were reduced when the doses were lower than 450 cGy. The difference was within 2.5% in the dose range from 20 to 300 cGy for all field sizes and depths studied. Dose profiles measured with EDR2 film were consistent with those measured with an ion chamber. The optimal sensitometric curve was acquired by irradiating film at a depth of 5 cm with doses ranging from 20 to 450 cGy with a 3×3 cm² multileaf collimator. The optimal sensitometric curve allowed accurate determination of the absolute dose distribution. In almost 200 cases of dynamic IMRT plan verification with EDR2 film, the difference between measured and calculated dose was generally less than 3% and with 3 mm distance to agreement when using gamma value verification.

Conclusion:

EDR2 film can be used for accurate verification of composite isodose distributions of dynamic IMRT when the optimal sensitometric curve has been established.     

Rapid radiographic film calibration for IMRT verification using automated MLC fields

A method for measuring a film sensitometric curve using a single sheet of film exposed with a two field step-and-shoot MLC treatment was developed and tested with Kodak XV2 and EDR2 films. With this technique a film sensitometric curve can be completed in only 10 minutes, making it practical to generate new film calibrations daily. This method is applicable to film calibrations for all purposes, but is particularly useful in IMRT treatment verification due to the method's use of small fields. This method agrees with the traditional large-field multifilm calibration within 0.5% and will produce sensitometric curves with errors less than 1% throughout the dose range, including uncertainties in dose delivery, film response, and optical density measurements. OD values for XV2 and EDR2 films were consistent in the middle of exposure areas at high depths, but the XV2 film penumbra regions showed large amounts of over-response as the calibration depth increased. If XV2 film is used for IMRT treatment verification, it is necessary to reduce the fluence of low energy photons in areas around the film by using thin lead shields. EDR2 film was shown to have minimal energy dependence, as it accurately represented penumbra areas and yielded identical sensitometric curves generated with 6 and 18 MV photons. However, its darker tint may make it more sensitive to scanning laser film digitizers' horizontal nonuniformities. This single film method proved to be superior to the traditional calibration method and allows fast daily calibrations of films for highly accurate IMRT delivery verifications.     

Dosimetry of therapeutic photon beams using an extended dose range film

For intensity modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) dose distribution verification, multidimensional measurements are required to quantify the steep dose-gradient regions. High resolution, two-dimensional dose distributions can be measured using radiographic film. However, the photon energy response of film is known to be a function of depth, field size, and photon beam energy, potentially reducing the accuracy of dose distribution measurements. The dosimetric properties of the recently developed Kodak EDR2 film were investigated and compared to those of Kodak XV film. The dose responses of both film types to 6 MV and 18 MV photon beams were investigated for depths of 5 cm, 10 cm, and 15 cm and field sizes of 4x4 cm2 and 15x15 cm2. This analysis involved the determination of sensitometric curves for XV and EDR2 films, the determination of dose profiles from exposed XV and EDR2 films, and comparison of the film-generated dose profiles to ionization chamber measurements. For the combinations of photon beam energy, depth, and field size investigated here, our results indicate that the sensitometric curves are nearly independent of field size and depth of calibration. For a field size of 4x4 cm2, a single sensitometric curve for either EDR2 and XV film can be used for the determination of relative dose profiles. For the larger field size, the sensitometric curve for EDR2 film is superior to XV film in regions where the dose falls below 20% of the central axis dose, due to the effects that the increased low energy scattered photon contributions have on film response. The limited field size and depth dependence of sensitometric data measured using EDR2 film, along with the inherently wide linear dose-response range of EDR2 film, makes it better suited to the verification of IMRT dose distributions.     

Matchline dosimetry in step and shoot IMRT fields: a film study

The Varian millennium 120 multileaf collimator has curved leaf ends. Transmission through the leaf ends generates a small asymmetric penumbral dose effect. This design can lead to hot spots between neighbouring beam segments during step and shoot IMRT dose delivery. We have observed some matchlines with film for clinical beams optimized using the pinnacle radiotherapy treatment planning system; hence we sought to verify the optimum leaf offset required to minimize the matchline effect. An in-house program was created to control the MLC leaf banks in 2 cm steps with a 2 cm gap. The gap was varied by the following offset values from 0.0 to 0.1 cm. Two types of radiographic films (Kodak EDR and XV films) and a radiochromic film (Gafchromic MD-55-2) were used to measure the optical density maps. The films were positioned in a solid water phantom perpendicular to the beam axis and irradiated at d(max) using a 6 MV photon beam. An ion chamber (IC4) was used to measure point doses for normalization in a beam umbral minima position. The relative mean peak to valley dose ratios measured with no leaf offset were 1.31, 1.30 and 1.31 for the XV, EDR2 and Gafchromic films, respectively. For a 0.07 cm gap per leaf and a performance of end leaf repeatability of 0.01 cm, the central matchline was reduced to about 1.0 for all dosimeters, with two mini-peaks measured as 1.05, 1.05 and 1.08 each side of the matchline, for XV, EDR2 and Gafchromic, respectively. The average relative dose across the umbra for this offset was XO-mat V = 1.01, EDR = 1.01 and radiochromic film = 1.02, respectively. While we expected the beam penumbral tails from segment neighbours to cause overprediction of the dose in the central valley regions due to the energy response of radiographic films, by normalizing all dosimeters to an ion chamber reading in the minimum we could not observe any major shape distortion between the radiographic film and radiochromic film results. In conclusion, relative doses measured by radiographic and radiochromic films agree well with IC4 within +/-2%.     

Effects of water light absorption properties of a radiographic film

Photon beam dosimetry using Kodak extended dose range (EDR2) radiographic film can provide accurate and high spatial resolution information especially for areas such as IMRT dosimetry where a higher dose level (100-400 cGy) is often required to be delivered for verification. For such dosimetry checks, it may sometimes be useful to place the film in a tank filled with water during irradiation. The effects of water on the film when packaged and when removed from the packaging have been examined. Results have shown that the EDR2 film when supplied in the ready pack form is provided in water proof packages and no significant absorption effects are observed or measured on the film even after 48 h of soaking in a water bath. When the film is removed from the ready packs and exposed to water directly, various effects are seen. In the visible spectrum region, small variations (up to 3%) in recorded optical density (OD) are recorded using a fluorescent light densitometer. These effects become much larger in the infrared region (e.g. 7.5% at 900 nm and 12.5% at 1000 nm) and are wavelength dependent. The changes produced by the water are relatively independent of the exposure time to water from 5 s up to 1 h or whether the water exposure occurred.     

Interinstitutional variations of sensitometric curves of radiographic dosimetric films

Depth and field size dependence of the sensitometric curves of radiographic films have been studied by various groups. Limited information is, however, available on the magnitude of the variations in sensitometric curves applied in clinical practice in different institutions. In this study we assessed in a systematic way the effect of the various parameters influencing the shape of the sensitometric curve: batch composition, irradiation conditions, film processing, and film scanning. Two types of film, Kodak X-Omat V and CEA TVS, were irradiated, processed, and analyzed in three different institutions. The interinstitutional variation of the sensitometric curves, expressed as the OD variation at 50 cGy, can be up to 32% and is mainly caused by differences in film processing and to a lesser degree to differences in batch composition, film scanning, and irradiation conditions. For the Kodak films, the average OD difference at 50 cGy between the three institutions is 17% as a result of differences in batch composition and 25% due to differences in processing conditions. For the CEA films these data are 6% and 24%, respectively. The long-term variation of the sensitometric curves of KODAK films in one institution was smaller than the differences in batch composition between the three institutions. The sensitometric curves of CEA films showed in one institution a large variation with time; the shape gradually varied from sigmoidal to quasilinear. By using relative OD values rather than absolute OD values, variations in sensitometric curves of KODAK films can be reduced to 2%. Consequently, one sensitometric curve is sufficient to derive relative dose values. If processing conditions are well controlled, it might therefore be advantageous to determine the absolute OD only at one or two dose values, in combination with a "universal" relative sensitometric curve.     

Investigation of Kodak extended dose range (EDR) film for megavoltage photon beam dosimetry

We have investigated the dependence of the measured optical density on the incident beam energy, field size and depth for a new type of film, Kodak extended dose range (Kodak EDR). Film measurements have been conducted over a range of field sizes (3 x 3 cm2 to 25 x 25 cm2) and depths (d(max) to 15 cm), for 6 MV and 15 MV photons within a solid water phantom, and the variation in sensitometric response (net optical density versus dose) has been reported. Kodak EDR film is found to have a linear response with dose, from 0 to 350 cGy, which is much higher than that typically seen for Kodak XV film (0-50 cGy). The variation in sensitometric response for Kodak EDR film as a function of field size and depth is observed to be similar to that of Kodak XV film; the optical density varied in the order of 2-3% for field sizes of 3 x 3 cm2 and 10 x 10 cm2 at depths of d(max), 5 cm and 15 cm in the phantom. Measurements for a 25 x 25 cm2 field size showed consistently higher optical densities at depths of d(max), 5 cm and 15 cm, relative to a 10 x 10 cm2 field size at 5 cm depth, with 4-5% differences noted at a depth of 15 cm. Fractional depth dose and profiles conducted with Kodak EDR film showed good agreement (2%/2 mm) with ion chamber measurements for all field sizes except for the 25 x 25 cm2 at depths greater than 15 cm, where differences in the order of 3-5% were observed. In addition, Kodak EDR film measurements were found to be consistent with those of Kodak XV film for all fractional depth doses and profiles. The results of this study indicate that Kodak EDR film may be a useful tool for relative dosimetry at higher dose ranges.     

The value of EDR2 film dosimetry in compensator-based intensity modulated radiation therapy

Radiographic or silver halide film is a well-established 2D dosimeter with an unquestioned spatial resolution. But its higher sensitivity to low-energy photons has to be taken into consideration. Metal compensators or physical modulators to deliver intensity modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) are known to change the beam energy spectrum and to produce scattered photons and contaminating electrons. Therefore the reliability of film dosimetry in compensator-based IMRT might be questioned. Conflicting data have been reported in the literature. This uncertainty about the validity of film dosimetry in compensator-based IMRT triggered us to conduct this study. First, the effect of MCP-96 compensators of varying thickness on the depth dose characteristics was investigated using a diamond detector which has a uniform energy response. A beam hardening effect was observed at 6 MV that resulted in a depth dose increase that remained below 2% at 20 cm depth. At 25 MV, in contrast, beam softening produced a dose decrease of up to 5% at the same depth. Second, dose was measured at depth using EDR2 film in perpendicular orientation to both 6 MV and 25 MV beams for different compensator thicknesses. A film dose underresponse of 1.1% was found for a 30 mm thick block in a 25 MV beam, which realized a transmission factor of 0.243. The effect induced by the compensators is higher than the experimental error but still within the accepted overall uncertainty of film dosimetry in clinical IMRT QA. With radiographic film as an affordable QA tool, the physical compensator remains a low threshold technique to deliver IMRT.     

Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) of carbon-doped aluminum oxide (Al2O3:C) for film dosimetry in radiotherapy

INTRODUCTION AND PURPOSE: Conventional x-ray films and radiochromic films have inherent challenges for high precision radiotherapy dosimetry. Here we have investigated basic characteristics of optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) of irradiated films containing carbon-doped aluminum oxide (Al2O3:C) for dosimetry in therapeutic photon and electron beams. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The OSL films consist of a polystyrene sheet, with a top layer of a mixture of single crystals of Al2O3:C, ground into a powder, and a polyester base. The total thickness of the films is 0.3 mm. Measurements have been performed in a water equivalent phantom, using 4, 6, 10, and 18 MV photon beams, and 6-22 MeV electron beams. The studies include assessment of the film response (acquired OSL signal/delivered dose) on delivered dose (linearity), dose rate (1-6 Gy/min), beam quality, field size and depth (6 MV, ranges 4 x 4-30 x 30 cm2, dmax-35 cm). Doses have been derived from ionization chamber measurements. OSL films have also been compared with conventional x-ray and GafChromic films for dosimetry outside the high dose area, with a high proportion of low dose scattered photons. In total, 787 OSL films have been irradiated. RESULTS: Overall, the OSL response for electron beams was 3.6% lower than for photon beams. Differences between the various electron beam energies were not significant. The 6 and 18 MV photon beams differed in response by 4%. No response dependencies on dose rate were observed. For the 6 MV beam, the field size and depth dependencies of the OSL response were within +/-2.5%. The observed inter-film response variation for films irradiated with the same dose varied from 1% to 3.2% (1 SD), depending on the measurement day. At a depth of 20 cm, 5 cm outside the 20 x 20 cm2 6 and 18 MV beams, an over response of 17% was observed. In contrast to GafChromic and conventional x-ray films, the response of the Al2O3:C films is linear in the clinically relevant dose range 0-200 cGy. CONCLUSIONS: Measurement of the OSL signal of irradiated films containing Al2O3:C is a promising technique for film dosimetry in radiotherapy with no or small response variations with dose rate, beam quality, field size and depth, and a linear response from 0 to 200 cGy.     

Variation of sensitometric curves of radiographic films in high energy photon beams.

Film dosimetry is an important tool for the verification of irradiation techniques. The shape of the sensitometric curve depends on the type of film as well as on the irradiation and processing conditions. Existing data concerning the influence of irradiation geometry on the sensitometric curve are conflicting. In particular the variation of optical density, OD, with field size and depth in a phantom shows large differences in magnitude between various authors. This variation, as well as the effect of beam energy and film plane orientation on OD, was therefore investigated for two types of film, Kodak X-Omat V and Agfa Structurix D2. Films were positioned in a solid phantom, either perpendicular or (almost) parallel to the beam axis, and irradiated to different dose levels using various photon beams (Co-60, 6 MV, 15 MV, 18 MV, 45 MV). It was found that the sensitometric curves of the Kodak film derived at different depths are almost identical for the four x-ray beams. For the Kodak film the differences in OD with depth are less than 2%, except for the Co-60 beam, where the difference is about 4% at 10 cm depth for a 15 cm x 15 cm field. The slope of the sensitometric curve of the Agfa film is somewhat more dependent on photon beam energy, depth and field size. The sensitometric curves of both types of film are almost independent of the film plane orientation, except for shallow depths. For Co-60 and for the same dose, the Kodak and Agfa films gave at dose maximum an OD lower by 4% and 6%, respectively, for the parallel compared to the perpendicular geometry. Good dosimetric results can be obtained if films from the same batch are irradiated with small to moderate field sizes (up to about 15 cm x 15 cm), at moderate depths (up to about 15 cm), using a single calibration curve, e.g., for a 10 cm x 10 cm field.     

Suitability of radiochromic medium for real-time optical measurements of ionizing radiation dose

A system, consisting of a novel optical fiber-based readout configuration and model-based method, has been developed to test suitability of a certain radiochromic medium for real-time measurements of ionizing radiation dose. Using this system with the radiochromic film allowed dose measurements to be performed during, and immediately after, exposure. The rates of change in OD before, during, and after exposure differ, and the change in OD during exposure was found to be proportional to applied dose in the tested range of 0-4 Gy. Estimating applied dose within an average error of less than 5% did not require a waiting time of 24-48 h as generally recommended with this radiochromic film. The errors can be further reduced by performing a calibration for each individual dosimeter setup instead of relying on batch calibration. Measurements of change in OD were found to be independent of dose-rate in the 95-570 cGy/min range for applied dose of 1 Gy or less. Some error was introduced due to dose-rate variation for doses of 2 Gy and above. The major limiting factor in utilizing this radiation sensitive medium for real-time in vivo dosimetry is the strong dependence on temperature in the clinically relevant range of 20-38 degrees C.     

TLD dose measurement: a simplified accurate technique for the dose range from 0.5 cGy to 1000 cGy.

A simplified TLD technique characterized by high precision and reproducibility of dose measurement is presented. One hundred eighty LiF TLD rods 1 mm diam x 3 mm length as obtained from the manufacturer were annealed for 1 h at 400 degrees C followed immediately by 2 h at 105 degrees C. After exposure to a dose of 1 Gy of 4 MV x rays, TLDs were annealed for 15 min at 105 degrees C, then read out. TLDs were then sorted into five groups, ranging from 26 to 50 rods each with approximately equal sensitivity after correcting for the drift in the sensitivity of the TLD reader during the readout session. Maintaining group identity, the TLDs were again annealed, irradiated and read out. Fewer than 10% of the TLDs were removed from each group because the corrected readings differed from the respective group mean by more than 3.5%. The standard deviation of the readout was approximately 1.5% within each group. The planchet heater was not flushed with nitrogen gas. Various tests were performed to assess the stability of the group sorting technique and the linearity of TLD dose response. After reannealing, five TLDs were randomly drawn from one of the presorted groups, and subjected to various dose of 4 MV radiation over the range from 0.5 to 1000 cGy. This resulted in an average readout standard deviation of 1.2%. Response per unit dose was almost flat over the range from 0.5 cGy to 100 cGy, and increased by 15% over the range from 100 cGy to 1000 cGy. TLD sensitivity was affected by the duration of the anneal, but was virtually independent of the various time delays between irradiation, prereadout anneal, and readout. The group annealing and sorting (GAS) procedure provides a simple, reliable, precise, convenient, and accurate method for TLD measurements.     

Normalized sensitometric curves for the verification of hybrid IMRT treatment plans with multiple energies

With the clinical implementation of time-variable dose patterns and intensity modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) film dosimetry has regained popularity. Films are currently the most frequently used dosimetric means for patient specific quality assurance in IMRT. A common method is to verify a so-called hybrid IMRT plan, which is the patient specific treatment plan with unmodified fluence patterns recalculated in a dedicated phantom. For such applications the sensitometric curve, i.e., the relation between optical density (OD) and absorbed dose, should not depend critically on beam energy, field size and depth, or film orientation. In order to minimize the influence of all these variables a normalization of sensitometric curves is performed at various photon beam energies (6 MV, 10 MV, 25 MV). By doing so one unique sensitometric curve can be used for these three beam qualities. This holds for both film types investigated: Kodak X-Omat V films and EDR-2 films. Additionally, the influence of field size, depth and film orientation on a normalized sensitometric curve is determined for both film types. For doses smaller than 0.8 Gy for X-Omat V and doses smaller than 3 Gy for EDR-2 films the field size variation of normalized sensitometric curves is much smaller than 3% for fields up to 20 x 20 cm2. For X-Omat V films all differences between sensitometric curves determined at depths of 5, 10, and 15 cm are smaller than 3%. For EDR-2 films deviations larger than 3% are only observed at low net OD smaller than 0.25. The dependence of film orientation (parallel versus perpendicular) on a normalized sensitometric curve is found to be not critical. However, processing conditions have the largest influence and can result in differences up to 20% for sensitometric curves derived from films of the same batch but using different film processors. When normalizing sensitometric curves to the dose value necessary to obtain a net OD=1 for that respective geometry and energy the large energy dependence of sensitometric curves can be almost eliminated. This becomes especially important for the verification of hybrid IMRT plans with multiple energies. Additionally, such a normalization minimizes other influences such as field size, depth, and film orientation. This method is generally applicable to both Kodak X-Omat V and EDR-2 films. In order to achieve the highest accuracy level an upper dose limit of 0.8 Gy for X-Omat V films and 3 Gy for EDR-2 films should be taken into account. However, these dose limits may vary with film reading instrument and film processor.     

Quantitative optical densitometry with scanning-laser film digitizers.

A new process for eliminating two types of artifacts inherent in commercially available transmission scanning-laser film digitizers is presented. The first kind of artifact results in nonreproducible interference-pattern fluctuations as large as 7%. The second kind results in spreading of transmitted light from low-to-high optical density (OD) in regions with rapidly varying ODs, producing errors as large as 50%. These OD artifacts cause the loss of precision for films with low-OD regions (first type) and the loss of accuracy for films with regions of high-OD near high-OD gradients (second type). Test radiochromic films, produced by uniform exposure to a 6 MV photon beam and a high dose rate 192Ir brachytherapy source, along with test radiographic films were used to characterize the artifacts of a commercially available scanning-laser film digitizer. The interference-pattern artifact was eliminated by digitizing the films on a masked diffusing ground-glass scanning bed. The light-transmission artifact was eliminated through discrete-fast-Fourier-transform (DFFT) deconvolution of transmission profiles with measured digitizer line-spread functions. Obtaining precise OD distributions after the DFFT deconvolution required prior removal of the interference-pattern artifact and application of a low-pass Wiener noise filter. Light-transmission artifacts are particularly significant for applications requiring measurement of high-gradient OD distributions, such as brachytherapy or conformal photon-beam film dosimetry and quantitation of two-dimensional electrophoresis gels. Errors as large as 15%-35% occur in OD distributions representative of these applications. The data collection and correction process developed in this study successfully removes these artifacts.     

Characteristics of sensitometric curves of radiographic films

A new type of radiographic film, EDR (extended dose range) film, has been recently become available for film dosimetry. It is particularly attractive for composite isodose verification of intensity modulated radiation therapy because of its low sensitivity relative to the more common Kodak XV film. For XV film, the relationship between optical density and dose, commonly known as the sensitometric curve, depends linearly on the dose at low densities. Unlike XV film, the sensitometric curve of EDR film irradiated by megavoltage x rays is not linearly dependent on the dose at low densities. In this work, to understand the mechanisms governing the shape of the sensitometric curves, EDR film was studied with kilovoltage x rays, 60Co gamma rays, megavoltage x rays, and electron beams. As a comparison, XV film was also studied with the same beams mentioned above. The model originally developed by Silberstein [J. Opt. Soc. Am. 35, 93-107, 1945)] is used to fit experimental data. It is found that the single hit model can be used to predict the sensitometric curve for XV films irradiated by all beams used in this work and for EDR films exposed to kilovoltage x rays. For EDR film irradiated by 60Co gamma rays, megavoltage x rays, and electron beams, the double hit model is used to fit the sensitometric curves. For doses less than 100 cGy, a systematic difference between measured densities and that predicted by the double hit model is observed. Possible causes of the observed differences are discussed. The results of this work provide a theoretical explanation of the sensitometric behavior of EDR film.