Neonatal mortality rate: Relationship to birth weight and gestational age

A total of 2063 live births were studied during one year period from July 1994 to June 1995. Neonatal mortality rate (NMR) was 35.4 per thousand live births. The case fatality rate among low birth weight and preterms was 10.1% and 18.1% respectively. Though, low birth weight babies accounted for 27.8% of the live births but contributed for 79.5% of neonatal deaths [p<0.001]. Similarly, preterm babies accounted for 13.2% of the live births but contributed for 69.9% of neonatal deaths [p<0.001]. The causes of neonatal deaths found were birth asphyxia (31.1%), infections (23.3%), immaturity (17.8%), hypothermia (9.6%), hyaline membrane disease (2.7%) and cogenital malformation (1.4%). There is need to identify strategies to reduce the incidence of prematurity and low birth weight babies. Comprehensive antenatal coverage and adequate care followed by optimal management of newborns at birth is likely to reduce NMR and improve quality of life among survivors.     

Low birth weight at term impairs cord serum lipoprotein compositions and concentrations

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of low birth weight at term on serum lipoproteins . Lipid and apolipoprotein (apo) contents were investigated in cord sera of small-for-gestational-age (SGA) newborns at term (2290 g ± 33 g) and compared with those of appropriate-for-gestational-age (AGA) newborns (3570 g ± 93 g). In SGA newborns, VLDL amounts were twofold higher, whereas LDL, HDL₂ and HDL₃ contents were lower than in AGA newborns (−38% ,−44% and −42%, respectively). VLDL-triacylglycerols (TG), apo B-100 and apo E were higher, while VLDL-apo C-II values were 39% lower in SGA newborns compared with those of AGA newborns. In SGA newborns, HDL₂-apolipoprotein, phospholipid and cholesteryl ester levels were respectively reduced to 70%, 50% and 40% compared with AGA values. HDL₃-apolipoprotein and phospholipid contents were also decreased in SGA newborns (−43% and −60%, respectively).The different HDL₂ and HDL₃-apolipoproteins (apo A-I, A-II, C-III and E) were significantly decreased in SGA newborns. Conclusion Intra-uterine growth retardation was accompanied by alterations in apolipoproteins and lipid compositions in the four lipoprotein fractions, which may impair lipid metabolism. Follow up studies on lipoprotein patterns in SGA infants are required to investigate whether such abnormalities at birth lead to diseases in adulthood. Received: 22 November 1996 and in revised form: 30 June 1997 / Accepted 1 July 1997     

Long-term development of low-risk low birth weight preterm born infants: Neurodevelopmental aspects from childhood to late adolescence

Background

Most studies on clinical outcome of preterm born infants focus on high-risk infants, whereas little is known about the long-term prognosis of low-risk low birth weight preterm born infants (LBW).

Aims

To examine physical growth, school outcome, behavioural aspects, quality of life, and intervention impact on LBW in late adolescence compared to term born controls and to analyse developmental pathways from childhood to adolescence for these groups.

Study design

In late adolescence 65 LBW and 41 matched term born controls were assessed with a structured telephone interview and standardized questionnaires with regard to physical growth, school career, therapeutic interventions, behavioural aspects, and quality of life. Longitudinal analysis comprised data from birth, infancy, school age, and adolescence.

Results

Growth in height of LBW was highly variable, but correlated significantly with birth parameters and was below those of controls with regard to percentiles. School enrollment of LBW was more often delayed, and there was a trend toward lower school graduation in LBW. The groups did not differ with regard to general or health-related quality of life and behavioural aspects, but LBW received significantly more therapeutical interventions.

Conclusions

In general, LBW showed no major deficits in late adolescence. However, a prolonged school career and a higher demand for therapeutic interventions indicate subtle neurodevelopmental deficits in LBW. This underscores the need for professional follow-up programmes for this majority of preterm born infants.     

Correlation between umbilical cord blood lipid profile and neonatal birth weight

Introduction and aim: The aim of this study was to investigate the relation between birth weight and neonatal umbilical cord serum lipid levels.     

Transthyretin levels are not related to Apgar score in low birth weight and very low birth weight infants

BACKGROUND: Previous studies have reported an increased incidence of thyroid dysfunction in premature/low birth weight infants. The cord blood concentrations of transthyretin (TTR), a thyroid hormone binding protein, have also been found to be decreased in preterm infants. While thyroid hormone concentrations are decreased in sick infants, it is not known if physical condition influences TTR levels. Serial concentrations of TTR following birth have not previously been reported. AIMS: To measure serial serum concentrations of TTR in premature infants following birth, and determine whether TTR levels are related to physical condition. METHODS: A cohort of 65 premature very low birth weight (VLBW) and LBW infants were studied. Serum samples were obtained on the day of birth, and for 8 weeks following birth. Apgar scores at birth as well as the incidence of respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) were noted. RESULTS: Baseline serum T4 concentrations and Apgar scores were significantly lower in VLBW infants, while the severity of RDS was significantly higher in the VLBW group. Multivariate analyses revealed that T4 levels were negatively associated with RDS, while TSH concentrations were positively related to gestational age. TTR concentrations were not related to gestational age at birth, Apgar score, or RDS, and did not change markedly over 8 weeks. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that serum TTR concentrations are not related to birth weight/gestational age and are not associated with either clinical condition at birth (as assessed by Apgar score) or the occurrence of RDS. Reference values for TTR concentrations in VLBW and LBW infants are provided from birth to 8 weeks of age.     

Low birth weight and the developing vascular tree: a systematic review

Low birth weight (LBW) is a risk factor for hypertension, stroke and coronary heart disease in adults. Mechanisms underlying cardiovascular disease may therefore be initiated in early life. Studies to investigate the initiating events and emergence of vascular risk markers in infancy and childhood have been an area of particular interest in recent years. The aim of this review is to focus on the early development of the human vascular tree in relation to LBW. Specific characteristics, including endothelial function, intima-media thickness, microvascular density, arterial dimensions and elasticity, will be discussed. LBW due to different causes--poor foetal growth or preterm birth--results in different patterns of altered development of the vascular system, which can already be seen in infancy. Follow-up studies in children and young adults indicate that vascular compromise in many ways persists in those born either small for gestational age or prematurely. CONCLUSION: LBW is associated with structural and functional changes in the vascular tree, which have implications for cardiovascular health in adult life.     

A longitudinal study of low birth weight babies

A longitudinal study of the growth and developmental parameters of 121 low birth weight babies along with 50 full term babies as control was carried out. 24.16 percent of low birth weight babies died during the neonatal period. Fifty five low birth weight babies who attended the well body clinic regularly and all the controls were followed up for a period of one year. Their growth and development parameters have been discussed.     

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目的探讨亲代出生体重对子代出生体重的影响及母亲宫内发育不良的经历是否会影响子代宫内发育状况,为研究环境和遗传因素对出生体重的影响提供线索。方法首都儿科研究所采用回顾性队列研究,于1995~2001年以1948~1954年北京协和医院出生的“宫内发育与成人疾病”队列人群为基础,利用研究对象的出生记录和回顾性问卷调查资料,分析出生体重在亲代与子代之间的关联。结果在控制了母亲的产次、生育年龄以及配偶的身高体重等影响因素后,母亲的出生体重与其子代出生体重之间存在显著的正相关关系(r=0·38,P<0·001),而父亲与子代之间在出生指标尚未表现出相关性;母亲为低出生体重(出生体重<2500g),其子代中低出生体重发生的危险是对照组(亲代出生体重≥3500g)的3倍多。结论母亲与子代在出生体重上存在明显正相关,母亲低出生体重可能会增加子代发生低出生体重的危险。     

Neuropsychological performance in low birth weight preschoolers: a population-based, controlled study

The aim was to evaluate neuropsychological performance and its pre-, and perinatal predictors in low birth weight (LBW) preschool children. A population-based sample of 137 5-year-old children with birth weights less than 2000 g and without major handicaps was compared with a random sample of 152 normal birth weight term controls. Main assessment tools were all subscales from the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence Revised, subscales from the Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities and tests of manual dexterity and figure copying. The LBW children showed significantly lower mean scores compared to controls on tests of visuo-spatial and visuo-motor abilities, but were comparable to controls in other areas, confounding parental factors were controlled for. 14 of the LBW children, there were signs of maternal chorio-amnionitis. Twelve of these had premature rupture of membranes lasting more than 24 h. These 14 children had a mean performance IQ of 87 (SD 5) compared to 100 (SD 15) for the LBW children without maternal signs of chorio-amnionitis (P = 0.001). Having a small head circumference at birth was a less powerful, but statistically significant predictor of impaired performance. Conclusion Low birth weight is associated with impaired performance on visuo-spatial and visuo-motor tasks. Signs of maternal chorio-amnionitis and a small head circumference at birth may be risk factors for such impairment. Received: 20 November 1996 / Accepted: 5 May 1997     

Intellectual psycho-educational and functional status of low birth weight survivors beyond 5 years of age

To determine the intellectual, psycho-educational and functional status of low birth weight (LBW) survivors (birth weight ≤2000 gms) beyond 5 years of age and to compare their status with normal birth weight counterparts. This was cross-sectional study. On hospital based cohort on longitudinal follow-up at the High Risk and Well Baby Clinics of a teaching hospital. The demographic data of these children was recorded. A detailed physical examination was performed. The tests of cognition included the Stanford Binet and the Raven’s Progressive Matrices. Academic achievement was evaluated by the Wide range achievement test-Revised (WRAT-R). Assessment of visuo motor integration was done by the Bender Gestalt Test. The proportion of children having soft neurological signs was determined. Vineland Social Maturity Scale was performed on all children. Fifty-nine LBW children and fifty-seven matched control children participated in the study. 27 of LBW children were examined at a mean age of 7.0 ±1.1 years (group I) and 32 were examined at a mean age of 10.6 ±1.2 years (group II). The LBW children as a group performed in the normal range on the tests of cognition and academic achievement, but were significantly disadvantaged (p < 0.005) as compared to controls. A higher percentage of LBW children had low scores on the Bender Gestalt. Test as compared to controls but the difference was not significant. A significantly higher proportion of LBW children of both the groups showed the presence of soft neurological signs as compared to controls. The social quotient as assessed by the vineland Social Maturity Scale was significantly lower in the LBW children as compared to controls. Thus, though the LBW children were performing in the normal range on various measures, comparison with the control group showed that they were clearly disadvantaged on nearly every measure tested, emphasizing the need for early detection and referral for special education.     

早产及低出生体重儿早期动态血小板计数监测及对比研究

目的　对低出生体重儿及足月新生儿生后一周内的血小板计数进行动态监测及对比研究。方法　将在我院分娩的无合并症的早产儿 10 4例及足月小于胎龄儿 4 2例作为监测对象。同时将足月新生儿 5 9例作为对照组。监测生后 2 4h内及生后 3～ 5d血小板计数。结果　生后 2 4h及 3～ 5d内足月新生儿与早产儿及足月小于胎龄儿血小板计数均值比较无显著性差异 (P值均 >0 0 5 )。仅生后3～ 5d与生后 2 4h内比较血小板计数均值稍有下降 ,但均无显著性差异。 2 4h内早产儿血小板减少的发生率为 3 85 % ,足月儿为 7 2 % ,(P >0 0 5 ) ,无显著性差异。 3～ 5d早产儿血小板减少的发生率为4 0 5 % ,足月儿 5 % (P >0 0 5 )。 2 0 5例被观察者中有 17例血小板低于 10 0× 10 9/L ,发生率 8 3% ,其中仅有 1例为 5 8× 10 9/L ,(0 4 9% ) ,其余均大于 70× 10 9/L。结论　正常低出生体重儿与足月儿比较 ,生后早期血小板计数值动态变化及血小板减少发生率无显著差异 ,而且血小板显著减少的发生率很低 ,因此血小板计数的异常降低可作为新生儿及低出生体重儿危重症评分法的指征之一     

Exercise performance in very low birth weight children at the age of 7–12 years

Fifteen very low birth weight children, 9 appropriate for gestational age (AGA, mean birth weight 1302 ± 164 g) and 6 small for gestational age children (SGA, mean birth weight 1263±117 g), were studied at the age of 7–12 years, and compared to a group of 26 healthy, age-, sex-, and height-matched children born at term. None of the VLBW children had developed chronic bronchopulmonary disease. Pulmonary function tests and progressive exercise tests on a treadmill were performed. Forced vital capacity, forced expiratory volume at 1 s and forced expiratory flow between 25% and 75% of vital capacity were normal for all subjects. No differences were found in maximum oxygen consumption, anaerobic threshold and maximal heart rate between the AGA and SGA children and the respective controls. Both in the AGA and SGA subgroups, the pre-exercise oxygen uptake results were comparable to those of the controls. In the SGA subgroup the energy cost of running was significantly higher with respect to the controls, while no difference was found between the AGA and the control children. In conclusion, children with birth weight less than 1501 g have normal values of aerobic fitness. In SGA children the efficiency of running is slightly reduced.     

Growth hormone levels in relation to birth weight and gestational age

Growth hormone levels were measured in 33 umbilical cord blood samples collected from babies born at JIPMER Hospital during April and May-1998. The study was done to evaluate the growth hormone profile in relation to birth weight and gestational age. There was statistically significant difference in the cord blood growth hormone levels between babies weighing > 2500 gms (28.1 ± 12.83 ng/dl) and low birth weight babies (76.8 ± 55.7 ng/dl). The difference in growth hormone levels between term babies weighing >2500 gms and preterm babies (72.5 ± 29.4 ng/dl) was also statistically significant. However, there was no significant difference in the cord blood growth hormone levels between term low birth weight and preterm babies. Growth hormone levels were higher in preterm babies and low birth weight babies as compared to term babies weighing >2500 gms indicating that growth hormone has an important role to play in intrauterine growth along with other growth promoting factors.     

Growth pattern of low birth weight babies in the first year of life

Objective: The growth pattern of low birth weight (LBW) babies was studied prospectively in our hospital from September 1995 to august 1996.Method: Every baby <1.5 kg birth weight (B.Wt), every 2nd baby between 1.5 to 2 kg, every 6th baby between 2to 2.5 kg and 120 term appropriate for gestation (AGA) babies ( as controls) were included in the study. Severe birth asphyxia, multiple gestation, major malformations or severe birth trauma formed exclusion criteria. Weight, length and head circumference were measured in all babies at birth and at 2 monthly intervals till 1 year of age. All babies completing 1 year follow-up were included for final analysis. Growth distance curves were constructed separately for each parameter for the six categories based on birth weight (Groups I-VI) and on gestational age (Divisions A-F). Comparison was made between the LBW babies and the controls for growth pattern among the babies who completed 1 year follow up (total of 220 babies).Result: The growth pattern for weight and length showed good catch up growth in babies >1.25 kg B.Wt. and >30 weeks gestation, reaching almost the same level as controls by 1 year of age. Babies with B.Wt <1.25 kg and <30 weeks gestation showed late and poor catch up growth, with considerable lag persisting at 1 year of age. Head circumference increased rapidly in all babies, with maximal growth rate initially followed by a steady decline. All babies showed catch up growth, although those <1.25 kg and <30 weeks gestation still lagged behind even at 1 year.Conclusion: It was seen that the smallest and least mature babies had late and poor catch up growth. Recognition of the factors influencing catch up growth and adequate measures to improve growth (like attention to feeding practices) may improve the overall outcome of these babies.     

Association between birth weight and birth arm circumference of neonates in rural Egypt

In many developing countries including Egypt, the birth weights (BWs) of most babies go unrecorded because they are born at home. Since it is difficult to record BW in the community setting, birth arm circumference (BAC) has been used as a valid proxy for BW to identify at risk babies with low birth weight (LBW). However, the validity of BAC as an indicator of the actual BW has not been assessed fully. We did this study among neonates in rural Bilbeis, Egypt, to examine the association between BW and BAC, to assess whether BAC can serve as an indicator of the actual BW, and to determine the validity indices of 3 different cut-off levels of BAC as indicators of LBW. During 1987–88, the weights and arm circumference of 148 neonates were recorded within 2 weeks of birth. We observed a strong and highly significant positive linear correlation between BW and BAC (r=0.6188, p=0.0001). The BAC cut-off value of <9.5 cm was associated with the optimal combination of sensitivity (50%) and specificity (88.4%) as an indicator of LBW. In linear regression analysis BAC was found to be a significant (p=0.00001) predictor of BW. The means of the model predicted weights for males, females, and both genders together were identical to the corresponding means of the observed values. In contingency table analysis, for 78 (52.7%) of the 148 neonates studied the observed and predicted BW categories were identical. For another 59 (39.9%) neonates, agreement with the next lower or higher BW category was observed. We feel that BAC can be used as an indicator of the actual BW in settings where routine recording of BW is currently not practicable.     

Trends in the prevalence of low birth weight in Okinawa, Japan: a public health perspective

Aim: To review the trends in low birth weight (LBW) in Japan and Okinawa and to discuss the public health implications of the trend.
Methods: The statistical records of Japan and the Okinawa prefecture were reviewed to observe secular trends of LBW incidence rate and other health indicators. Literature researches were undertaken of English and Japanese language publications to complete the review.
Results: The LBW rate in Japan declined until the 1970s, reaching a low point for the whole country in 1978–1979 when it was 5.2% (7.2% in Okinawa). In Okinawa the proportion of LBW declined from 8.1% in 1973 to 7.2 in 1978. Since 1980 the LBW rate has steadily increased to its current level of 9.3% in Japan and 10.9% in Okinawa. During this period, the prematurity rate has not increased and other indicators of child health have continued to improve.
Conclusion: Japan is unique among developed countries in that the LBW rate has almost doubled in the past three decades and the rate in Okinawa is 20% greater than the mainland. The health costs of this trend include the neonatal care of LBW infants and the increased risk of chronic disease in later life.     

Infantile hemangiomas: an emerging health issue linked to an increased rate of low birth weight infants

A total of 420 children with infantile hemangioma (IH) were compared with 353 age-matched controls. Using multivariate logistic regression, low birth weight was the most significant risk factor; for every 500-g decrease in birth weight, the risk of IH increased by 40%. A positive family history also increased the risk of IH (33% vs 15% of controls; P < .001).     

Assessment of neonatal jaundice in low birth weight infants comparing transcutaneous,capillary and arterial bilirubin levels

Total serum bilirubin level was assessed in a group of jaundiced low birth weight infants using three different methods. Transcutaneous bilirubinometry was compared with conventional capillary and arterial methods to investigate the over-or underestimation of neonatal jaundice. Sampling site did not influence bilirubin levels. Capillary and arterial results showed a linear correlation (r=0.9) suggesting no influence of environmental light on peripheral bilirubin isomerization. Similar results were obtained comparing both serum levels with transcutaneous values (r=0.7). We conclude that treatment decisions may be made on the basis of one of the three mentioned methods in healthy low birth weight infants with neonatal jaundice.     

妊娠期抑郁症与新生儿低出生体重关系的Meta分析

目的探讨妊娠期抑郁症与新生儿低出生体重的关系,为预防新生儿低出生体重提供科学依据。方法系统收集研究妊娠期抑郁症与低出生体重关系的队列研究文献,进行Meta分析,由两名研究人员独立地提取数据,按照NOS量表对纳入文献进行质量评价,采用Egger's检验评估发表偏倚。结果共纳入12篇队列研究文献,涉及37 192个样本。Meta分析结果表明:妊娠期抑郁症与新生儿低出生体重有关(Z=2.08,P=0.038),妊娠期抑郁的孕母其新生儿发生低出生体重的风险更高(RR=1.303,95%CI:1.015~1.672)。敏感性分析结果表明该Meta分析结果稳定可靠,Egger's检验结果表明无发表偏倚。结论妊娠期抑郁症可能是新生儿低出生体重的危险因素。     

Influence of intrauterine growth retardation on parameters of liver function in low birth weight infants

To establish nutritional management of low birthweight infants according to their individual metabolic situation, hepatocellular partial function was studied in 13 appropriate (AGA) and 11 small-for-gestational-age (SGA) low birthweight (LBW) infants during the first weeks of postnatal life. The concentrations of total bile acids and of alpha-amino-nitrogen in serum, the renal excretion of urea and ammonia and the renal excretion of¹⁵N after enteral administration of 3 mg¹⁵N-labeled methacetin/kg were measured. In comparison to AGA infants, SGA infants had elevated serum concentrations of total bile acids and of alpha-amino-nitrogen, decreased excretion of urea, increased excretion of ammonia in urine, and lower urinary¹⁵N-excretion after enteral administration of¹⁵N-labeled methacetin. The data suggest that hepato-cellular functions are influenced by intrauterine growth retardation resulting in a reduced metabolic capacity in SGA infants. The metabolic differences between SGA and AGA infants should be considered in the nutritional management of LBW infants.