Management of combined anteriorcruciate ligament/posterior cruciate ligament/posterolateral complex injuries of the knee

The multiple ligament injured knee is a complex problem in orthopedic surgery. These injuries may present as acuteknee dislocations, and careful assessment of the extremity vascular status is essential because of the possibility of arterial and/or venous compromise. These complex injuries require a systematic approach to evaluation and treatment. Physical examination and imaging studies enable the surgeon to make a correct diagnosis and formulate a treatment plan. Arthroscopically assisted combined anterior cruciate ligament/ posterior cruciate ligament (ACL/PCL) reconstruction is a reproducible procedure. Knee stability is improved postoperatively when evaluated with knee ligament rating scales, arthrometer testing, and stress radiographic analysis. Posterolateral complex (PLC) injuries combined with ACL/PCL tears are best treated with primary repair as indicated combined with PCL reconstruction using a post of strong autograft (split biceps tendon, biceps tendon, semitendinosus), or allograft (Achilles tendon, bone-patellar tendon-bone) tissue. Surgical timing depends on the injured ligaments, vascular status of the extremity, reduction stability, and overall patient health. The use of allograft tissue is preferred because of the strength of these large grafts and the absence of donor site morbidity.     

Fresh meniscal allograft transplantation and autologous ACL/PCL reconstruction in a patient with complex knee trauma following knee dislocation--a case report

Instability of the knee joint, particularly in combination with the loss of one meniscus, regularly leads to the early development of arthritis. This paper describes the case of a 19-year-old male with ruptures of the anterior (ACL) and posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) along with the loss of the medial meniscus due to knee dislocation. Combined, time-delayed reconstruction of both the ACL and PCL and the allogenic fresh meniscal transplantation of the medial meniscus without bone plugs were performed. The control arthroscopy performed 6 months post-transplantation revealed good vitality and integration of the grafts as assessed both macroscopically and histologically. A small portion of the posterior horn had to be refixated, and the anterior horn was atrophic. At 24 months after trauma and 13 months following meniscal transplantation, the patient achieved a Lysholm score of 88 points and clinical examination indicated a stable knee. Fresh meniscal allograft transplantation, in combination with autologous ACL and PCL reconstruction, constitutes--in specialized centers--an alternative treatment option for complex trauma of the knee joint with loss of a meniscus.     

Translation and testing of measurement properties of the Swedish version of the IKDC subjective knee form

To translate to Swedish language and cross‐culturally adapt the IKDC‐SKF and to test the measurement properties of the Swedish version of IKDC‐SKF in ACL‐injured patients undergoing reconstruction surgery.The translation and cross‐cultural adaption was performed according to guidelines. Seventy‐six patients with an ACL injury filled out the IKDC‐SKF and other questionnaires before ACL reconstruction and at 4, 6, and 12 months after surgery. A total of 203 patients from the Swedish ACL Registry participated at 8 months post‐operative. Measurement properties were tested according to the COnsensus‐based Standards for the selection of health Measurement INstruments (COSMIN) guidelines.The Swedish IKDC‐SKF had high internal consistency (Cronbach′s alpha=0.90) and test‐retest reliability (ICC_2,1=0.92, CI 95%: 0.81‐0.97, P<.001). A single factor solution accounted for 46.1% of the variance in IKDC‐SKF scores. Criterion validity was moderate to high. All ten predefined hypotheses for hypothesis testing were confirmed. The six hypotheses for responsiveness testing were confirmed. The effect size was 1.8, the standardized response mean was 1.9, the and minimal clinically important difference was 13.9 points.The Swedish version of the IKDC‐SKF had good measurement properties and can be recommended for use in a population of ACL‐deficient patients undergoing ACL reconstruction.     

Surgical treatment of multiple knee ligament injuries in 44 patients: 2–8 years follow-up results

The purpose of the study was to evaluate the mid-term results of surgical treatment in different groups of patients with multiple knee ligament injuries. Review of our patients’ records revealed that 48 acute and chronic patients were surgically treated for combined knee injury. Due to severe capsular damage in these injuries, open techniques were used. In our treatment protocol, avulsed ligaments and tears of the posterolateral and posteromedial corner were repaired if possible, whereas midsubstance tears of cruciate ligaments and chronic cases were reconstructed with autografts. Postoperatively, an accelerated program of rehabilitation was introduced, aiming to progressively mobilize the joint and improve muscle endurance. For the follow-up evaluation we designed a protocol composed of two parts. In the first part, anatomical lesions were recorded and in the second part, clinical evaluation was performed using the Lysholm score, the Tegner rating system, the IKDC evaluation form, and the KT1000. Student’s t tests and chi-square tests were used for data analysis. Forty-eight patients (mean age 28.6±11.9 years; 41 males) were classified according to the specific anatomical structures involved. Group A included 12 anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) and medial structure injuries, group B included 11 ACL or posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) ruptures combined with posterolateral injuries, and group C consisted of 25 knee dislocations (ACL and PCL ruptures which might be combined with damage of the collateral ligaments). Thirty-eight patients were surgically treated during the acute phase and ten patients were treated chronically. Forty-four patients (91.6%) were followed up at a mean of 51.3±29.9 months. Average Lysholm score was 87±12.3; average Tegner score was 5.09±2.19 before accident and 4.34±2.12 in re-examination; IKDC score was A in 10 cases, B in 22, C in 6, and D in 6. The mean range of motion was 129.9°±12.5°. The average loss of extension and flexion were 1.6°±2.5° and 7.6°±7.9°, respectively. The side-to-side difference in corrected anterior and posterior translation in quadriceps neutral angle and in anterior translation in 30° angle was <3 mm for about 65% of our patients. Surgical treatment of multiple knee ligament injuries, using autografts, provided satisfactory stability, range of motion, and subjective functional results. However, despite the improvement of the quality of life, the preinjury patients’ activity level was not fully obtained in re-examination. Patients underwent surgical treatment during the acute phase had better scores in several points, but finally there was no statistical significance between acute and chronic patients. Moreover, no statistically significant differences were observed among the groups with specific damaged anatomical structures.     

Comparison of functional outcome after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction resulting in low, normal and increased laxity

The aim of the study was to analyse and compare the results after arthroscopic anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction using patellar tendon autografts in three groups of patients. The groups were determined by knee laxity as measured with the KT-1000 arthrometer at the follow-up two to five years after the reconstruction. Group A (n=15) had an anterior side-to-side laxity difference of <-3 mm (i.e. the reconstructed knee was less lax than the contralateral non-injured knee), Group B (n=376) had a difference of > or = -1, but < or = +2 mm and Group C (n=38) had a difference of > or g=6 mm. All the patients had a normal contralateral knee. In Group A, 7/15 (47%) patients and, in Group B, 82/375 (22%) patients had an extension deficit of > or =5 degrees (P=0.052). The corresponding values in terms of flexion deficit were 8/15 (53%) and 99/375 (26%) respectively (P=0.04) (one missing value in Group B). In Group C, 14/38 (37%) had an extension deficit (P=0.04; Group B vs Group C). Group C displayed worse results than Group B in terms of the Lysholm score and the one-leg-hop test (P=0.001 and P=0.011 respectively). The corresponding comparison between Group A and Group B revealed no significant differences. We conclude that a considerable number of patients showed persisting deficits in range of motion (ROM) after an ACL reconstruction. No major differences were found if they were analysed in subgroups with decreased, near normal or with increased knee laxity. The worst residual functional impairment, as measured with the Lysholm score and one-leg-hop test, was found in the group with increased knee laxity and most ROM deficits in the knees with decreased laxity.     

兔异体前交叉韧带移植重建后交叉韧带的组织学研究

目的:观察兔异体骨-前交叉韧带-骨移植重建后交叉韧带(PCL)术后移植物的组织学转归。方法:24只骨骼成熟新西兰大白兔,随机选取每只兔的一侧后腿进行无菌取材,用新鲜冰冻异体骨-前交叉韧带-骨移植重建兔后交叉韧带,分别于术后第6周、12周、26周、52周对重建后的移植物进行组织学观察。结果:重建后的移植物在关节内经历了细胞长入、胶原纤维再生和再塑形过程,术后52周时移植物类似于正常PCL,细胞形态、大小及排列接近正常,胶原纤维束排列规律、致密,甲苯胺蓝异染物质分布类似于正常PCL,移植物外包绕的滑膜趋于正常,其Ⅲ型胶原含量下降,Ⅰ型胶原明显增多,但移植物内Ⅰ、Ⅲ型胶原的含量及分布仍与正常PCL有区别。结论:兔异体前交叉韧带移植重建后交叉韧带术,移植物的组织学特性对PCL重建效果有明显影响,提示应用同种组织类型移植物可取得更好的重建效果。     

Surgical treatment of ACL/PCL/ medial-side knee injuries

The medial cruciate ligament (MCL), anterior cruciate ligament (ACL), and posterior oblique ligament (POL) frequently are injured by a combination of valgus and external rotation forces. Grade I or II MCL injuries alone or in combination with ACL or posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) injuries are treated nonoperatively, with cruciate ligament reconstruction delayed 3 to 6 weeks. Treatment of acute grade III ACL/PCL medial knee injuries remains controversial. Recommendations have included nonoperative treatment of the MCL and reconstruction of the ACL and PCL, acute reconstruction of the MCL and nonoperative treatment of the ACL, and treatment of all grade III injuries with acute repair. For chronic ACL/PCL/medial knee injuries, magnetic resonance imaging and examination under anesthesia are followed by endoscopic ACL/PCL reconstruction. Severe valgus laxity usually requires tightening of the MCL in addition to the posterior capsule, the posterior oblique area of the posteromedial capsule, and the midmedial capsular ligament. Thorough preoperative planning is essential to determine what procedures will be necessary for each patient.     

Treatment of vascular injuries in themultiple-ligament-injured knee

Popliteal vascular injury associated with the multiple-ligament-injured knee, including knee dislocation, continues to be an uncommon but morbid injury. The tethering of the popliteal vessels to the femur at Hunter's canal and to the tibia by the soleus muscle allows for significant vascular injury when the supporting ligamentous structure is disrupted. The majority of injuries are related to motor vehicle accidents, including driver and passenger injuries, motor vehicle versus pedestrian injuries (bumper injuries), and motorcycle accidents. The mechanisms of vascular injury, both artery and vein, include stretching that results in intimal injury, contusion, laceration, transection, or avulsion. A high index of suspicion must be maintained in the evaluation of these injuries. Modes of evaluation include physical examination, ankle brachial indices, duplex examination, magnetic resonance imaging, and angiography. Given the potentially devastating consequence of a missed popliteal artery injury, routine arteriography or serial physical examination with duplex examination is recommended for patients with a multiple-ligament-injured knee. Vascular repair to include primary repair, patch angioplasty, or interposition grafting is performed from either a medial or posterior approach. Adjunctive measures include 4-compartment fasciotomy, mannitol administration, and vasodilator therapy. Several controllable factors have been found to improve limb salvage, such as decreased ischemia time, systemic anticoagulation, and 4-compartment fasciotomy. Prompt recognition of vascular injury, prompt restoration of flow, and use of proven adjuncts provides the optimal possibility of limb salvage with popliteal artery injuries associated with the multiple-ligament-injured knee.     

Diagnostic accuracy of MRI knee in reference to arthroscopy in meniscal and anterior cruciate ligament injuries

Objective

Data regarding the diagnostic accuracy of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) are contradictory. The aim of this study was to find the accuracy of MRI knee against arthroscopy, in cases of meniscus and Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL) injuries. To the best of our knowledge, this is the largest Indian study comparing MRI knee with arthroscopy comprehensively.

同种异体骨-髌腱-骨组织移植重建前交叉韧带36例临床分析

目的:回顾性研究并评估采用同种异体骨-髌腱-骨组织移植重建前交叉韧带患者的临床疗效。方法:从2004年12月至2006年8月,对36例ACL损伤病例进行了同种异体骨-髌腱-骨组织移植重建。男性16例,女性20例;平均年龄28岁(15~56岁);急性损伤11例,慢性损伤25例。对所有患者进行了主观评估(包括手术前后Lysholm评分、IKDC评分和症状改善情况)和客观评估(包括Lachman试验、轴移试验、KT-1000测量,以及关节活动范围),并对比了患者术前以及术后的MR影像和关节镜手术探查影像,还对术后发热情况以及并发症进行了记录。结果:本组病例平均随访23.6个月(12~32个月)。主观评估:术前Lyshrolm评分为63.61±13.4分(46~90分),术后最终评分为98.03±3.6分(85~100分),与术前对比差异有统计学意义(P<0.01);术后IKDC评分总体优良率达到91.7%。客观评估:KT-1000测量结果:术前两侧胫骨前移的差别为7.05±2.15mm(2~11mm),术后最终测量值为1.15±1.43mm(0~6mm),与术前对比差异有统计学意义(P<0.01)。所有患者均未出现明显的术后并发症以及病毒和细菌感染。1例患者移植物松弛度增加,给予固缩治疗后好转。另1例部分韧带磨损,但主观评估良好,给予清创和髁间窝成形术处理。结论:短期观察显示,采用同种异体骨-髌腱-骨组织移植重建ACL能够获得满意的临床疗效,具备有效性和安全性。     

Initial evaluation of the acutemultiple-ligament-injured knee

The multiple-ligament-injured knee is an orthopaedic emergency. The initial assessment of this injury mustinclude a thorough and expedient physical examination, with particular attention directed to the vascularity of the extremity. Vascular injuries should be ruled out immediately because a pulseless extremity may result in a below-knee amputation if the leg is not reperfused within 6 to 8 hours. All patients with a normal vascular examination must have serial pulse examinations or undergo an arteriogram, because intimal tears may present on a delayed basis. The neurological examination, particularly of the peroneal nerve, should be documented. A detailed examination of the knee ligaments is performed on the anterior cruciate ligament, posterior cruciate ligament, medial collateral ligament, and posterolateral anatomic structures. Initial and postreduction radiographs require thorough evaluation to assess for peri-articular fractures, direction of dislocation, and adequacy of reduction. Magnetic resonance imaging will provide detailed information about the ligaments, bone or subchondral bone, menisci, and articular cartilage. The physical examination must be correlated with the magnetic resonance imaging findings for preoperative planning. This article provides a treatment algorithm that can be helpful in the initial assessment and decision-making process of the multiple-ligament-injured knee.     

Effects of perturbation or plyometric training on core control and knee joint loading in women during lateral movements

Deficits in trunk control are argued to increase the risk of knee injuries. However, no existing training program effectively addresses trunk control during lateral movements, such as cutting maneuvers. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether a combination of perturbation and plyometric training (PPT) would reduce trunk excursions against the new movement direction and reduce knee joint moments during lateral movements. Twenty‐four active women participated in a RCT, where trunk and pelvis kinematics and knee joint moments were measured during lateral reactive jumps (LRJ) and unanticipated cutting maneuvers before and after a 4‐week PPT program and compared to a control group. During LRJ, trunk rotation away from the new movement direction was reduced (P < 0.001), while pelvis rotation toward the new direction was increased (P = 0.006) after PPT. Moreover, decreased knee extension moments (P = 0.028) and knee internal rotation moments (P < 0.001) were reported after both trainings. Additionally, PPT reduced trunk rotation by 7.2° during unanticipated cuttings. A 4‐week PPT improved core control by reducing trunk rotation and reduced knee joint moments during LRJ. During training, perturbations should be introduced to improve core control during dynamic athletic movements, possibly reducing the risk of ACL injuries.     

Surgical treatment of type II floating knee: comparisons of the results of type IIA and type IIB floating knee

The prognosis of type II floating knee injuries was not as good as that of type I. Our purpose is to clarify the factors affecting the outcome of type II floating knee injuries. Thirty-five patients (36 limbs) with type II floating knee injury were studied with a mean follow-up of 52 months (26–96). Blake and McBryde had classified these injuries into type I for pure diaphyseal (true type) fracture and type II if the intra-articular involvements are one or more including hip, knee and ankle joints (variant type). According to this classification, we divided these patients into two groups depending on whether their knees were involved or not. Those cases with intra-articular knee involvement were classified as type IIA, while those without intra-articular knee involvement were classified as type IIB. Of the 36 cases, 21 were classified as type IIA and 15 were type IIB. The functional outcomes of these injuries were evaluated by using the criteria of Karlström and Olerud and analyzed with multivariate analysis. After multivariate analysis with logistic regression, we show the following results: first, the poor functional outcome of type II floating knee is contributed by type IIA. Second, the type IIA group has severer femoral open fracture grading (P = 0.027) and poorer functional outcome (P = 0.009) than type IIB. Third, the significant contributing factors to final outcome are the group (P = 0.013) and the fixation time after injury in femur (P = 0.015). Intra-articular knee involvement is the most important factor contributing to poor outcome of type II floating knee. The treatment of floating knee injuries with intra-articular knee involvement is still difficult. Further efforts to search better methods of treatment are required for these complex injuries in the future.     

Evaluation and treatment principlesof knee dislocations

Low-energy athletic injuries and high-velocity motor vehicle trauma can both result in a knee dislocation. A wide array of structures is typically injured, and the popliteal artery and peroneal nerve are at risk. The dislocated knee may not be initially recognized because of a spontaneous relocation. Orthopedic surgeons need to immediately evaluate the neurovascular status of the limb, and determine whether the injury is open or closed and whether the joint is reducible or irreducible. Primary treatment involves closed reduction and treatment of vascular compromise. Identification of the injury mechanism and the position of the tibia relative to the femur direct the reduction technique. Operative treatment of ligament injuries is preferred for most patients who have satisfactory vascular supply, skin coverage, rehabilitation potential, and anticipated future activity demands. Classification of the specific ligament structures involved guides the surgical technique. The timing and extent of surgery remain controversial because of concern for knee stiffness. Improved surgical techniques, the use of allogeneic graft sources, and controlled postoperative knee range of motion have reduced the risk of arthrofibrosis. Surgical repair and reconstruction of the knee ligaments and associated structures followed by early rehabilitation provide the highest level of function.     

Intra-articular knee injuries in patients with knee extensor mechanism ruptures

The knee extensor mechanism is composed of the quadriceps tendon, patella and patellar tendon. Rupture of either the quadriceps tendon or patella tendon is a rare but significant injury. The purpose of our study is to determine if there are any associated injuries with these ruptures necessitating the need for further evaluation such as MRI or arthroscopy. We retrospectively reviewed all patients with ruptures of the knee extensor mechanism who required operative repair at our institution over the last 10 years. We reviewed the chart for any documented associated injury. The type and incidence of associated injuries were recorded. We further divided these patients into two groups: low energy indirect mechanism or high-energy direct impact mechanism. Sixty-four patients met our requirements for inclusion in this study. Thirty-three patients with patellar tendon ruptures and thirty-one patients with quadriceps tendon ruptures were included. Ten out of 33 (30%) patients with a patellar tendon rupture had an associated injury. Four out of 25 (16%) patients with patellar tendon ruptures in the low energy mechanism category had an associated injury. Six out of 8 (75%) patients with a high-energy direct impact patellar tendon rupture had an associated injury. Three out of 31 (10%) patients with quadriceps tendon rupture had an associated injury. The most common associated injuries in the patellar tendon rupture patients were anterior cruciate ligament tears (18%) and medial meniscus tears (18%). We found almost one-third of all patients with a patellar tendon rupture had an associated intra-articular knee injury. We found 10% of patients with quadriceps tendon rupture had an associated intra-articular knee injury. We also found an even higher incidence of associated injuries in patients with high-energy direct impact mechanism patellar tendon ruptures (75%). The most common associated injuries in patients with patellar tendon ruptures were tears of the anterior cruciate ligament (18%) and medial meniscus (18%). We recommend that consideration be given in obtaining a MRI or diagnostic arthroscopy in patients with patellar tendon ruptures especially those with high-energy direct impact mechanism. To our knowledge this has not previously been documented in the literature.