Effect of the additional noradrenergic neurodegeneration to 6-OHDA-lesioned rats in levodopa-induced dyskinesias and in cognitive disturbances

Parkinson’s disease is a motor and cognitive disorder characterised by a progressive loss of the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) dopaminergic neurons as well as of the locus coeruleus (LC) noradrenergic neurons. It has been suggested that LC neurodegeneration might influence levodopa-induced motor disturbances and cognitive performance. We investigated the influence of dopaminergic and noradrenergic lesions on levodopa-induced dyskinesias and on working memory in rats. Two groups of animals were used: (1) rats with a dopaminergic lesion induced by a unilateral administration of the neurotoxin 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA), and (2) rats with a combined lesion of the dopaminergic and noradrenergic systems induced by 6-OHDA and N-(2-chloroethyl)-N-ethyl-2-bromobenzylamine (DSP-4), respectively. Dyskinesias were evaluated on days 1, 8, 15 and 22 of chronic levodopa treatment (6 mg/kg, twice at day, i.p.). Working memory was evaluated by a radial-arm maze (1) before lesions, (2) before levodopa administration and (3) after 22 days of levodopa treatment. Total, axial, limb and orofacial dyskinesias not differed significantly between both groups. Working memory tasks worsened in both lesioned groups reaching significance in terms of time of performance (P < 0.05). The number of repeated entries in the same arm (errors) was only significant in the double-lesioned group (P < 0.05). This behaviour was not different from the one observed after chronic levodopa treatment. These results suggest that levodopa-induced dyskinesias in the 6-OHDA-lesioned rats were not affected by the additional noradrenergic lesion, whereas this last condition was sufficient to worse the cognitive performance deficit produced by the dopaminergic lesion.     

Adenosine A2A antagonism reverses levodopa-induced motor alterations in hemiparkinsonian rats

To evaluate the possible involvement of adenosine A(2A) receptor-mediated mechanisms in levodopa-induced motor fluctuations, we investigated the effects of CSC (8-(3-chlorostryryl) caffeine), a selective adenosine A(2A) receptor antagonist, on levodopa-induced motor alterations in rats with unilateral 6-OHDA lesion. Acute and chronic administration of CSC was studied to evaluate the possible reversion or prevention of these levodopa effects. In a first set of experiments, rats were treated with levodopa (25 mg/kg with benserazide, twice daily, i.p.) for 22 days and on day 23 CSC (5 mg/kg, i.p.) was administered immediately before levodopa. In a second set of experiments, rats were treated daily for 22 days with levodopa and CSC (5 mg/kg/day, i.p.). The duration of the rotational behavior induced by chronic levodopa decreased after 22 days (P < 0.05). Acute administration of CSC on day 23 reversed levodopa-induced shortening in motor response duration (P < 0.01). Chronic CSC administration did not prevent the shortening in response duration induced by levodopa. Our results demonstrate that the adenosine A(2A) receptor antagonist CSC reverses but does not prevent levodopa-induced motor alterations in parkinsonian rats. These results suggest a role for adenosine A(2A) receptor-mediated mechanisms in the pathophysiology of levodopa-induced motor response complications. These findings suggest that the antagonism of adenosine A(2A) receptors might confer clinical benefit to parkinsonian patients under levodopa therapy suffering from motor complication syndrome.     

LY293558, an AMPA glutamate receptor antagonist, prevents and reverses levodopa-induced motor alterations in Parkinsonian rats.

To evaluate the possible involvement of glutamate AMPA receptor-mediated mechanisms in levodopa-induced motor fluctuations, we investigated the effects of LY293558, a competitive AMPA receptor antagonist, on levodopa-induced motor alterations in rats with unilateral 6-OHDA lesion. Acute and chronic administration of LY293558 was studied to evaluate the possible reversion or prevention of these levodopa effects. In the first set of experiments, rats were treated with levodopa (25 mg/kg with benserazide, twice daily, i.p.) for 22 days and on day 23 LY293558 (5 mg/kg, i.p.) was administered immediately before levodopa. In the second set of experiments, rats were treated daily for 22 days with levodopa and LY293558 (5 mg/kg, twice daily, i.p.). In the third set of experiments, the effect of LY293558 (5 mg/kg, i.p.) administration on selective dopamine D-1 (SKF38393, 1.5 mg/kg, s.c.) and D-2 agonist (quinpirole, 0.1 mg/kg, i.p.)-induced rotational behavior after daily levodopa treatment was studied. The duration of the rotational behavior induced by chronic levodopa decreased by 30% after 22 days. Acute administration of LY293558 on day 23 reversed this effect. The group of animals that were chronically treated with levodopa and LY293558 did not show the decrease in this motor response duration. Chronic levodopa treatment attenuated the rotational response to the D-1 agonist SKF38393 and increased the response to the D-2 agonist quinpirole. LY293558 did not reverse the effect of levodopa on rotational behavior induced by the D-1 agonist but significantly reduced the rotational response to the D-2 agonist in levodopa-treated animals by 40%. Our results demonstrate that an AMPA receptor antagonist reverses and prevents levodopa-induced motor alterations in parkinsonian rats and that this effect on motor fluctuations induced by chronic levodopa is probably due to a modulation of the indirect output pathway of the basal ganglia.     

Effect of acute and chronic administration of U50,488, a kappa opioid receptor agonist,in 6-OHDA-lesioned rats chronically treated with levodopa

To evaluate the possible involvement of kappa opioid receptor-mediated mechanisms in levodopa-induced motor fluctuations, we have investigated the effects of U50,488, a selective kappa opioid agonist, on levodopa-induced motor alterations in rats with unilateral 6-OHDA lesion. Acute and chronic administration of U50,488 has been studied to evaluate the possible reversion or prevention of these levodopa effects. In a first set of experiments, rats were treated with levodopa (25 mg/kg with benserazide, twice daily, ip) for 22 days and, on Day 23 U50,488 (0.5, 1, or 3 mg/kg, i.p.) was administered immediately before levodopa. In a second set of experiments, rats were treated daily for 22 days with levodopa and U50,488 (1 or 3 mg/kg/day, i.p.). The duration of the rotational behavior induced by chronic levodopa decreased after 22 days (P < 0.05). Acute administration of U50,488 on Day 23 reversed this effect when low doses were administered (P < 0.05). Chronic U50,488 administration did not prevent the shortening in response duration induced by levodopa. Our results demonstrate that the kappa opioid receptor agonist U50,488 reverses but does not prevents levodopa-induced motor alterations in parkinsonian rats. These results suggest a role for kappa opioid receptor-mediated mechanisms in the pathophysiology of levodopa-induced motor response complications. These findings suggest that the stimulation of kappa opioid receptors might confer clinical benefit to parkinsonian patients under levodopa therapy suffering from motor complication syndrome.     

Narrow beneficial effect of dextromethorphan on levodopa-induced motor response alterations in an experimental model of parkinsonism

The effects of acute and chronic dextromethorphan on levodopa-induced motor response alterations have been studied in rats with unilateral lesion of nigrostriatal pathway induced by 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA). Male Sprague-Dawley rats received a 6-OHDA injection (8 microg) into the left medial forebrain bundle. To validate the effect of acute dextromethorphan administration, groups of rats were treated with levodopa (25 mg/kg, twice daily) for 22 days. On day 23, animals received dextromethorphan (20, 30 or 40 mg/kg) immediately before levodopa. In a second set of experiments, lesioned rats were concomitantly treated with levodopa plus dextromethorphan (20, 30 or 40 mg/kg, twice at day) for 22 consecutive days in order to investigate the potential effect of chronic dextromethorphan administration in preventing the decrease in the duration of motor response. As expected, the duration of the motor response to levodopa had significantly decreased by the 22nd day of levodopa in each group of treatment. Acute administration of dextromethorphan on day 23 reversed the reduction in the duration of the levodopa response only when administered at the lowest dose used in the present study (20 mg/kg) (p<0.05). Chronic administration of dextromethorphan concomitant to levodopa did not prevent levodopa effect showing a significant decrease on motor response duration (124+/-4 on day 1 vs. 88+/-16 on day 22, p<0.05, 30 mg/kg, twice a day). Our results indicate that in parkinsonian rats dextromethorphan is not a useful drug to prevent levodopa-induced motor alterations, however, low doses of dextromethorphan may be beneficial to reverse these alterations in motor response.     

Cellular and behavioral effects of 5-HT1A receptor agonist 8-OH-DPAT in a rat model of levodopa-induced motor complications

5-HT1A autoreceptor stimulation can act to attenuate supraphysiological swings in extracellular dopamine levels following long-term levodopa treatment and may be useful in the treatment and prevention of the motor complications. The purpose of this study was to investigate cellular and behavioral effects of 5-HT1A receptor agonist 8-OH-DPAT in a rat model of levodopa-induced motor complications. Two sets of experiments were performed. First, animals were treated with levodopa (50 mg/kg with benserazide 12.5 mg/kg, twice daily), intraperitoneally (i.p.) for 22 days. On day 23, animals received either 8-OH-DPAT (1 mg/kg, i.p.) or 8-OH-DPAT plus WAY-100635 (0.1 mg/kg, i.p) or vehicle with each levodopa dose. In the second set, animals were treated either with levodopa (50 mg/kg, i.p.) plus 8-OH-DPAT (1 mg/kg, i.p.) or levodopa (50 mg/kg, i.p.) plus vehicle, administered twice daily for 22 consecutive days. Our study showed that 8-OH-DPAT plus levodopa both prolonged the duration of the motor response and reduced peak turning. 8-OH-DPAT plus levodopa also decreased the frequency of failures to levodopa. Co-administration of WAY-100635, a 5-HT1A receptor antagonist, with 8-OH-DPAT eliminated the effect of 8-OH-DPAT on motor complications indicating that the observed 8-OH-DPAT responses were probably mediated at the 5-HT1A autoreceptor. Moreover, 8-OH-DPAT plus levodopa significantly reduced hyperphosphorylation of GluR1 at serine 845, which was closely associated with levodopa-induced motor complications.     

Reversion of levodopa-induced motor fluctuations by the A2A antagonist CSC is associated with an increase in striatal preprodynorphin mRNA expression in 6-OHDA-lesioned rats

The molecular mechanisms involved in the reversion of levodopa-induced motor fluctuations by the adenosine A2A antagonist 8-(3-chlorostryryl) caffeine (CSC) were investigated in rats with a 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-induced lesion and compared with the ones achieved by the kappa-opioid agonist, U50,488. Animals were treated with levodopa (50 mg/kg/day) for 22 days and for one additional week with levodopa + CSC (5 mg/kg/day), levodopa + U50,488 (1 mg/kg/day), or levodopa + vehicle. The reversion of the decrease in the duration of levodopa-induced rotations by CSC, but not by U50,488, was maintained until the end of the treatment and was associated with a further increase in levodopa-induced preprodynorphin mRNA in the lesioned striatum, being higher in the ventromedial striatum. The increase in striatal preprodynorphin expression, particularly in the ventromedial striatum, may be related to the reversion of levodopa-induced motor fluctuations in the CSC-treated animals, suggesting a role of the direct striatal output pathway activity in the ventromedial striatum in the pathophysiology of motor fluctuations.     

细胞外信号调节激酶通路在帕金森病运动并发症中的作用

目的 探讨细胞外信号调节激酶(ERK)通路在左旋多巴诱发的运动并发症中的作用.方法 通过6-羟多巴胺立体定向注射至大鼠前脑内侧前脑束建立帕金森病(PD)动物模型.对建模成功的PD大鼠每日2次左旋多巴(50 mg/kg 加12.5 mg/kg苄丝肼)腹腔注射,持续22 d.在第23天注射左旋多巴前,给予PD大鼠ERK特异性的抑制剂PD98059处理.评估旋转反应时间及剂峰旋转圈数,采用蛋白免疫印迹法检测纹状体区ERK1/2 磷酸化表达情况.结果 长期使用左旋多巴处理使PD大鼠损伤侧纹状体ERK1/2 磷酸化水平显著增强(155.6%±6.5%), 而PD98059 可明显降低ERK1/2磷酸化水平(85.4%±5.6%).同时,PD98059逆转了左旋多巴所诱导的PD大鼠旋转时间的缩短,减少了剂峰旋转次数.此外,蛋白激酶C(PKC)抑制剂能部分减轻ERK1/2磷酸化水平(101.2%±6.2%,与左旋多巴+溶剂组相比较t=3.2,P<0.05).结论 PD运动并发症的发生可能与纹状体ERK通路的激活有关,并且ERK通路的激活部分是PKC所依赖的;抑制ERK通路活性的药物可能是治疗PD运动并发症的一种新的治疗方式.     

腺苷A2A受体拮抗剂改善帕金森病运动并发症

目的 探讨腺苷A2A受体拮抗剂8-(3-Chlorostyryl)caffeine(CSC)对左旋多巴诱发的运动并发症的行为学与细胞学影响.方法 通过6-羟基多巴(6-OHDA)立体定向注射至大鼠前脑内侧束建立帕金森病(PD)动物模型.模型成功大鼠接受每日2次左旋多巴甲酯(50 mg/kg加12.5mg/kg苄丝肼)腹腔注射,持续22 d.在第23天,运动并发症模型组大鼠(n=8)继续接受如上用药,用药组(n=8)在左旋多巴注射前注射腺苷A2A受体拮抗剂CSC,均用药至第29天.同时设假手术组(n=8)和PD对照组(n=8).评估旋转时间,并采用免疫组织化学法和蛋白印迹法观察和检测纹状体区腺苷A2A受体的表达情况.结果 左旋多巴长期用药诱发PD大鼠模型旋转反应时间缩短,同时模型组损伤侧纹状体区腺苷A2A受体的表达升高[阳性细胞指数(IOD),(11.55±2.75)×104>],较假手术组[IOD,(6.02±1.29)×10±]和PD组[IOD,(5.60±1.83)×10±]有统计学意义(F=33.31,P<0.05).CSC用药逆转了左旋多巴诱导的PD大鼠旋转时间的缩短,损伤侧纹状体区腺苷A2A受体的表达[IOD,(5.80±1.56)×104>]也下调至对照组和PD组水平.结论 腺苷A2A受体参与了左旋多巴诱发的运动并发症的发生,腺苷A2A受体拮抗剂可能是治疗PD运动并发症有前景的药物.     

Role of nigral lesion in the genesis of dyskinesias in a rat model of Parkinson's disease

The pathogenesis of the motor fluctuations and dyskinesias that complicate levodopa treatment for Parkinson's disease (PD) remains uncertain. To evaluate the relationship between the degree of dopamine neuron loss and the severity of dyskinesias in a rodent model of PD, Sprague-Dawley rats were lesioned unilaterally using different doses of 6-hydroxydopamine injected into the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc). All rats received two daily oral doses of levodopa for one month. In most of the animals chronic levodopa administration induced abnormal involuntary movements (AIMs), which were in some respects similar to human dyskinesias. We found that a minimum dopamine cell loss of around 95% was required for the development of dyskinesias after one-month of levodopa treatment. Moreover, we observed a positive relationship between the percentage dopaminergic cell loss in the SNc and the severity of levodopa-induced AIMs.     

Early administration of entacapone prevents levodopa-induced motor fluctuations in hemiparkinsonian rats

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of the catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) inhibitor, entacapone, in the reversal and prevention of "wearing-off" phenomena in hemiparkinsonian rats. Catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) inhibitors increase the half-life and bioavailability of levodopa, providing more continuous dopamine receptor stimulation. This raises the possibility of using levodopa and a COMT inhibitor not only to treat motor complications, but also to prevent their development. Male Sprague-Dawley rats received a unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) administration in the nigrostriatal pathway. Two sets of experiments were performed. First, animals were treated with levodopa (50 mg/kg/day with benserazide 12.5 mg/kg/day, twice daily (b.i.d.), intraperitoneally (i.p.) for 22 days. On day 23, animals received either entacapone (30 mg/kg, i.p.) or vehicle with each levodopa dose. In the second set, animals were treated either with levodopa (50 mg/kg/day, i.p.) plus entacapone (30 mg/kg/day, i.p.) or levodopa (50 mg/kg/day, i.p.) plus vehicle, administered two or three times daily [b.i.d. or thrice daily (t.i.d.), respectively] for 22 consecutive days. Entacapone both reversed and prevented the shortening of the motor response duration that defines "wearing-off" motor fluctuations. Entacapone also decreased the frequency of failures to levodopa. The combination of levodopa and entacapone may reduce the likelihood of motor fluctuation development and may thus become a valuable approach to treat Parkinson disease whenever levodopa is needed.     

Broad neuroprotective profile of nicotinamide in different mouse models of MPTP-induced parkinsonism

The factors contributing to substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) dopamine (DA) neuron death and striatal DA depletion in Parkinson's disease (PD) are still poorly understood. However, mitochondrial dysfunction, cellular energy depletion and oxidative stress appear to play important roles in the pathogenesis of PD. In view of this, the current study examined the potential of nicotinamide, a form of the B-complex vitamin niacin, to protect against 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-induced SNc cell loss and striatal DA depletion in two mouse MPTP models that respond differently to putative neuroprotective agents. Adult male C57Bl/6 mice received nicotinamide (125, 250 or 500 mg/kg i.p.) prior to either acute (four injections in 1 day at 2-h intervals) or sub-acute (two injections per day at 4-h intervals for 5 days) MPTP administration. Striatal DA levels, changes in numbers of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)- and cresyl violet-stained cells in the SNc at 2 and 6 weeks following the last MPTP exposure were analyzed. Nicotinamide administration resulted in a dose-dependent sparing of striatal DA levels and SNc neurons in acute MPTP-treated animals. Only the highest dose of nicotinamide had similar effects in sub-acute MPTP-treated animals. At 6 weeks after MPTP exposure, there was some spontaneous recovery of striatal DA levels in both models: neuroprotective effects were still apparent in acute but not sub-acute MPTP-treated animals. These results show neuroprotective effects of nicotinamide in different mouse Parkinson models associated with different forms of cell death and suggest that nicotinamide may have broad neuroprotective potential in PD.     

CB1受体激动剂WIN55212-2改善帕金森病运动并发症的实验研究

目的探讨CB1受体激动剂WIN55212-2对左旋多巴诱发的运动并发症的行为学及细胞学作用。方法通过6-OHDA立体定向注射至大鼠右侧前脑内侧束建立PD动物模型,成功的PD大鼠模型分别接受左旋多巴/苄丝肼(50mg/kg加12.5mg/kg苄丝肼,每天2次)+溶剂、左旋多巴/苄丝肼+WIN55212-2(1mg/kg)腹腔注射,共持续21d。评估用药后大鼠的旋转反应时间、剂峰旋转圈数变化和关期发生率;采用Western blot方法检测纹状体信号转导蛋白DARPP-32(Thr75)和ERK1/2(Thr202/Tyr204)的磷酸化表达。结果长期联合应用WIN55212-2和左旋多巴,缓解了左旋多巴单独用药所致的PD大鼠旋转反应时间缩短、剂峰旋转圈数增加的趋势,并明显降低关期发生频率。WIN55212-2与左旋多巴合用显著降低了纹状体内DARPP-32(Thr75)的磷酸化;但未使ERK1/2磷酸化表达降低至对照组水平。结论激动CB1受体可能有益于预防帕金森病运动并发症。     

可控释左旋多巴和苄丝肼微球减少帕金森病大鼠异动症的发生

目的 观察聚乳酸-羟基乙酸共聚物( PLGA)包裹的可释放左旋多巴和苄丝肼的微球对帕金森病(PD)大鼠运动症状及异动症发生的影响并探讨其机制.方法 PLGA包裹左旋多巴及苄丝肼制作微球,高效液相法测定微球在体内释放出的左旋多巴和苄丝肼的浓度,6-羟基多巴胺(6-OHDA)注射制作PD大鼠模型,制模成功的PD大鼠随机分成PD组、左旋多巴组、微球组(每组12只),另设溶剂注射假手术组(n=12).左旋多巴组和微球组大鼠分别接受左旋多巴和苄丝肼(左旋多巴12 mg/kg,苄丝肼15 mg/kg)或等剂量微球皮下注射,在治疗的第1、4、7、10、14天行大鼠前肢功能测定,治疗2周后行大鼠异常不自主运动( AIM)评分,免疫组织化学及Western blot法检测纹状体区磷酸化的多巴胺和环磷腺苷调节的磷酸化蛋白-32(DARPP-32)(Thr34)和△FosB水平.结果 体内释放实验表明第7天时左旋多巴和苄丝肼释放量分别达76.2％和83.6％.微球处理组大鼠在治疗的第10天和第14天时前肢跨步数分别为5.8±1.6和5.2±1.5,比左旋多巴组(2.4±1.1、1.2±0.5)明显增加(t =4.12,5.43,均P＜0.01).微球处理组大鼠第14天AIM评分[(16.0±2.1)分]较左旋多巴处理组[(26.0±3.2)分]显著下降,差异有统计学意义(t =6.59,P＜0.01).免疫组织化学显示微球处理组大鼠纹状体磷酸化DARPP-32水平[(3.7±1.3)×104]较左旋多巴处理组[(7.9±2.2)×104]明显降低(t=2.95,P＜0.05).Western blot结果显示微球处理组大鼠磷酸化DARPP-32和△FosB水平分别为119.4％±11.3％和149.3％±12.3％,较左旋多巴组(184.8％±13.7％和300.4％±14.2％)显著下降(t =4.12、2.91,均P＜0.05).结论 微球皮下注射可以改善PD大鼠的运动症状,同时可以减少PD大鼠异动症的发生,这与微球释放的左旋多巴持续性刺激PD大鼠从而减少磷酸化DARPP-32和△FosB的水平有关.     

Entacapone potentiates the long-duration response but does not normalize levodopa-induced molecular changes

Coadministration of entacapone with levodopa attenuates motor complications in experimental models of Parkinson's disease. The mechanisms underlying entacapone effects are unknown. We investigated the effect of entacapone, on: long-duration response (LDR) to levodopa, levodopa-induced postsynaptic pharmacodynamic mechanisms and molecular changes in hemiparkinsonian rats. 6-Hydroxydopamine-unilaterally lesioned rats were treated with levodopa (25 mg/kg) + vehicle; levodopa + entacapone (30 mg/kg) or saline, twice daily for 22 days. The LDR and the apomorphine-induced rotations were measured. In situ hybridization was performed measuring the expression of striatal preproenkephalin, preprodynorphin and dopamine D-3 receptor mRNAs, subthalamic cytochrome oxidase mRNA and nigral glutamic acid decarboxylase mRNA. Entacapone potentiated the LDR but did not modify either the apomorphine-induced rotational behavior or the molecular changes. Our results suggest that the effects of entacapone on levodopa-induced motor response are not mediated by postsynaptic mechanisms and that administration of entacapone is not able to normalize the molecular alterations induced by levodopa in the basal ganglia.     

Chronic haloperidol inactivates brain noradrenergic neurons

Rats were administered haloperidol (0.5 mg/kg/day) for 21 days. Twenty percent of locus coeruleus (LC) neurons recorded were not spontaneously active, while no such neuron was observed in control animals. A further 22% of neurons (spontaneously active) had rates greater than 2 standard deviations from the mean of LC control cells. These results reveal that haloperidol has profound effects on LC neurons that develop with prolonged administration, indicating a possible role of brain noradrenergic systems in clinical effects (and possible side-effects) of this neuroleptic.     

Non-subtype-selective opioid receptor antagonism in treatment of levodopa-induced motor complications in Parkinson's disease.

Opioid peptide transmission is enhanced in the striatum of animal models and Parkinson's disease (PD) patients with levodopa-induced motor complications. Opioid receptor antagonists reduce levodopa-induced dyskinesia in primate models of PD; however, clinical trials to date have been inconclusive. A double-blind, placebo controlled, crossover design study in 14 patients with PD experiencing motor fluctuations was carried out, using the non-subtype-selective opioid receptor antagonist naloxone. Naloxone did not reduce levodopa-induced dyskinesia. The duration of action of levodopa was increased significantly by 17.5%. Non-subtype-selective opioid receptor antagonism may prove useful in the treatment of levodopa-related wearing-off in PD but not in dyskinesia.     

Firing activity of locus coeruleus noradrenergic neurons increases in a rodent model of Parkinsonism

Objective

To investigate the changes in the firing activity of noradrenergic neurons in the locus coeruleus (LC) in a rat model of Parkinson disease (PD).

Methods

2 and 4 weeks after unilateral lesion of the nigrostriatal pathway in the rat by local injection of 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) into the right substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc), the firing activity of noradrenergic neurons in LC was recorded by extracellular single unit recording.

Results

The firing rate of LC noradrenergic neurons increased significantly 2 and 4 weeks after 6-OHDA lesions compared to normal rats, respectively (P < 0.05). The percentage of irregularly firing neurons was obviously higher than that of normal rats during the fourth week after SNc lesion (P < 0.05).

Conclusion

LC noradrenergic neurons are overactive and more irregular in 6-OHDA-lesioned rats. These changes suggest an implication of the LC in the pathophysiological mechanism of PD.     

Levodopa-induced dyskinesia and rotational behavior in hemiparkinsonian rats: independent features or components of the same phenomenon?

Chronic daily administration of 6.25 mg/kg of levodopa in unilaterally 6-OHDA lesioned rats did not induce any observable behavioral effects for the first 12.5 ± 2.5 days. Thereafter, levodopa administration induced abnormal involuntary movements (AIMs), involving the contralateral limb, head, neck and trunk, along with the development of contralateral rotations. AIMs and rotations followed a progressively worsening, highly correlated, parallel course. We suggest that rotational behavior does not represent a pure antiparkinsonian response, but along with levodopa-induced dyskinesia is part of the levodopa-induced motor response complications syndrome.     

The ability of grafted human sympathetic neurons to synthesize and store dopamine: a potential mechanism for the clinical effect of sympathetic neuron autografts in patients with Parkinson's disease

We have investigated the potential of autologous sympathetic neurons as a donor for cell therapy of Parkinson's disease (PD). Our recent study demonstrated that sympathetic neuron autografts increase the duration of levodopa-induced “on” periods with consequent reduction in the percent time spent in “off” phase. We also found that human sympathetic neurons grown in culture have the ability to convert exogenous levodopa to dopamine and to store the synthesized dopamine. This may explain the clinically observed prolongation in the duration of levodopa effects. To further analyze the mechanism for the graft-mediated effect, the present study investigated the metabolic function of human sympathetic ganglionic neurons xenografted into the dopamine (DA)-denervated striatum of rats by monitoring striatal levels of DA and its primary metabolite, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC), after systemic administration of levodopa. We also explored whether the graft-mediated effect above may last in four PD patients who had been given the grafts and followed for 12-36 months postgrafting. Clinical evaluations showed that an increase in the duration of levodopa-induced “on” phase is detected during a follow-up period of 12-36 months postgrafting in all the four patients tested. Accordingly, the percent time spent in “off” phase exhibited a 30-40% reduction as compared to the pregrafting values. The animal experiment showed that a significant increase in striatal DA levels is noted after systemic levodopa treatment, and that the DA levels remain high for longer periods of time in the grafted rats than in control animals. When given reserpine pretreatment, the levodopa-induced rise of striatal DA levels was significantly attenuated with concomitant increase in DOPAC levels. Histological examinations demonstrated that the grafts contain some tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-positive cells. These cells were also found to express aromatic-l-amino acid decarboxylase (AADC) and vesicular monoamine transporter-2 (VMAT), both of which are important molecules for the synthesis and the storage of DA, respectively. These results indicate that grafted sympathetic neurons can provide a site for both the conversion of exogenous levodopa to DA and the storage of the synthesized DA in the DA-denervated striatum, explaining a mechanism by which sympathetic neuron autografts can increase the duration of levodopa-induced “on” phase in PD patients.